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Linux vs. WindowsUsers who are considering making a change fromWindows to Linux or Linux to Windows commonly want to know the advantages and disadvantages of each of the operating systems. Below is a chart to help illustrate the major advantages and disadvantages of each of these operating systems.
TopicLinuxWindowsPriceThe majority of Linux variants are available for free or at a much lower price than Microsoft Windows.Microsoft Windows can run between $99.00 - $199.00 US dollars for each licensed copy. However, Microsoft is planning to make Windows 10 available for free to Windows 7 and Windows 8 users, for one year after release.EaseAlthough the majority of Linux variants have improved dramatically in ease of use, Windows is still considered to be easier to use for non-technical computer users. Windows-based PCs are much more likely to be found in a school or workplace setting, as well.Microsoft has implemented many changes throughout its versions of Windows to facilitate ease of use. While it may arguably not be the easiest operating system, it is still less difficult to use than Linux.ReliabilityThe majority of Linux variants and versions are notoriously reliable and can often run for months and years without needing to be rebooted.Although Microsoft Windows has made great improvements in reliability over the last few versions of Windows, it still cannot match the reliability of Linux.SoftwareLinux has a large variety of available softwareprograms, utilities, and games, but Windows still has a larger selection of available software. However, software is available for Linux that mimics some Windows-based software or supports files created in Windows-based software, like Word and Excel.Because of the large amount of Microsoft Windows users, there is a much larger selection of availablesoftware programs, utilities, and games for Windows.Software CostMany of the available software programs, utilities, and games available on Linux arefreeware or open source. Even such complex programs such as GIMP, OpenOffice, StarOffice, and Wine are available for free or at a low cost.Although Windows does havesoftware programs, utilities, and games for free, the majority of the programs will cost anywhere between $20.00 - $200.00+ US dollars per copy.HardwareAlthough hardware manufacturers have made great advancements in supporting Linux, some hardware devices still are not supported by Linux. However, for the hardware devices that have driver support, they usually work in all versions of Linux.Microsoft Windows has a very large user base, so most hardware manufacturer support Windows drivers for their products.SecurityLinux is and has always been a very secure operating system. Although it still can be attacked, when compared to Windows, it much more secure.Although Microsoft has made great improvements over the years with security on their operating system, their operating system continues to be the most vulnerable to viruses, malware, and other attacks.Open SourceMany of the Linux variants and many Linux programs are open source and enable users to customize or modify the code however they want to.Microsoft Windows is not open source and the majority of Windows programs are not open source.SupportAlthough it may be more difficult to find users familiar with all Linux variants, there is a huge amount of online support available for Linux, including here on Computer Hope.Microsoft Windows includes its own help section, has a vast amount of available online documentation and help, and there are books on each of the version of Windows.Use CasesLinux is often used as the operating system for servers at companies and sometimes even at schools. It is also used for home computers, but often by users with more technical knowledge and background.Microsoft Windows is a common operating system for home computer users. It is also commonly found on workplace and school computers. However, some versions of Windows are used on servers at companies and schools as well.
TopicLinuxWindowsPriceThe majority of Linux variants are available for free or at a much lower price than Microsoft Windows.Microsoft Windows can run between $99.00 - $199.00 US dollars for each licensed copy. However, Microsoft is planning to make Windows 10 available for free to Windows 7 and Windows 8 users, for one year after release.EaseAlthough the majority of Linux variants have improved dramatically in ease of use, Windows is still considered to be easier to use for non-technical computer users. Windows-based PCs are much more likely to be found in a school or workplace setting, as well.Microsoft has implemented many changes throughout its versions of Windows to facilitate ease of use. While it may arguably not be the easiest operating system, it is still less difficult to use than Linux.ReliabilityThe majority of Linux variants and versions are notoriously reliable and can often run for months and years without needing to be rebooted.Although Microsoft Windows has made great improvements in reliability over the last few versions of Windows, it still cannot match the reliability of Linux.SoftwareLinux has a large variety of available softwareprograms, utilities, and games, but Windows still has a larger selection of available software. However, software is available for Linux that mimics some Windows-based software or supports files created in Windows-based software, like Word and Excel.Because of the large amount of Microsoft Windows users, there is a much larger selection of availablesoftware programs, utilities, and games for Windows.Software CostMany of the available software programs, utilities, and games available on Linux arefreeware or open source. Even such complex programs such as GIMP, OpenOffice, StarOffice, and Wine are available for free or at a low cost.Although Windows does havesoftware programs, utilities, and games for free, the majority of the programs will cost anywhere between $20.00 - $200.00+ US dollars per copy.HardwareAlthough hardware manufacturers have made great advancements in supporting Linux, some hardware devices still are not supported by Linux. However, for the hardware devices that have driver support, they usually work in all versions of Linux.Microsoft Windows has a very large user base, so most hardware manufacturer support Windows drivers for their products.SecurityLinux is and has always been a very secure operating system. Although it still can be attacked, when compared to Windows, it much more secure.Although Microsoft has made great improvements over the years with security on their operating system, their operating system continues to be the most vulnerable to viruses, malware, and other attacks.Open SourceMany of the Linux variants and many Linux programs are open source and enable users to customize or modify the code however they want to.Microsoft Windows is not open source and the majority of Windows programs are not open source.SupportAlthough it may be more difficult to find users familiar with all Linux variants, there is a huge amount of online support available for Linux, including here on Computer Hope.Microsoft Windows includes its own help section, has a vast amount of available online documentation and help, and there are books on each of the version of Windows.Use CasesLinux is often used as the operating system for servers at companies and sometimes even at schools. It is also used for home computers, but often by users with more technical knowledge and background.Microsoft Windows is a common operating system for home computer users. It is also commonly found on workplace and school computers. However, some versions of Windows are used on servers at companies and schools as well.
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IT Certifications and Career PathsCCNA Security Certification
CCNA Security OverviewLearn more about the benefits and requirements associated with achieving a CCNA Security certification. (5:18 min)
Cisco Certified Network Associate Security (CCNA Security) validates associate-level knowledge and skills required to secure Cisco networks. With a CCNA Security certification, a network professional demonstrates the skills required to develop a security infrastructure, recognize threats and vulnerabilities to networks, and mitigate security threats. The CCNA Security curriculum emphasizes core security technologies, the installation, troubleshooting and monitoring of network devices to maintain integrity, confidentiality and availability of data and devices, and competency in the technologies that Cisco uses in its security structure.
PrerequisitesAny valid Cisco CCENT, CCNA Routing and Switching, or any CCIE certification can act as a prerequisite.
Exams & Recommended TrainingRequired Exam(s)Recommended Training640-554 IINSImplementing Cisco IOS Network Security (IINS)For a complete list of available network security training, visit the Security Training page.
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Cisco Certified Network Associate Security (CCNA Security) validates associate-level knowledge and skills required to secure Cisco networks. With a CCNA Security certification, a network professional demonstrates the skills required to develop a security infrastructure, recognize threats and vulnerabilities to networks, and mitigate security threats. The CCNA Security curriculum emphasizes core security technologies, the installation, troubleshooting and monitoring of network devices to maintain integrity, confidentiality and availability of data and devices, and competency in the technologies that Cisco uses in its security structure.
PrerequisitesAny valid Cisco CCENT, CCNA Routing and Switching, or any CCIE certification can act as a prerequisite.
Exams & Recommended TrainingRequired Exam(s)Recommended Training640-554 IINSImplementing Cisco IOS Network Security (IINS)For a complete list of available network security training, visit the Security Training page.
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- Quick Learning Module - Securing Cisco iOS Devices
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Point-to-multipoint communicationFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
It has been suggested that this article be merged into Star network. (Discuss) Proposed since February 2015.In telecommunications, point-to-multipoint communication is communication which is accomplished via a distinct type of one-to-many connection, providing multiple paths from a single location to multiple locations.[1]
Point-to-multipoint is often abbreviated as P2MP, PTMP, or PMP.
Point-to-multipoint telecommunications is most typically (2003) used in wireless Internet and IP telephony via gigahertz radio frequencies. P2MP systems have been designed both as single and bi-directional systems. A central antenna or antenna array broadcasts to several receiving antennas and the system uses a form of time-division multiplexingto allow for the back-channel traffic.
See also[edit]References[edit]
- Jump up^ M. Cover, Thomas; Joy A. Thomas (1991). Elements of Information Theory. Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 0-471-06259-6.
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Telecommunications
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Point-to-Point ProtocolFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacksinline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (November 2011)Internet protocol suiteApplication layerTransport layerInternet layerLink layer
In computer networking, Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link protocol used to establish a direct connection between twonodes. It can provide connection authentication, transmission encryption (using ECP, RFC 1968), and compression.
PPP is used over many types of physical networks including serial cable, phone line, trunk line, cellular telephone, specialized radio links, and fiber optic links such as SONET. PPP is also used over Internet access connections. Internet service providers (ISPs) have used PPP for customer dial-up access to the Internet, since IP packets cannot be transmitted over a modem line on their own, without some data link protocol. Two derivatives of PPP, Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE) and Point-to-Point Protocol over ATM (PPPoA), are used most commonly by Internet Service Providers (ISPs) to establish a Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) Internet service connection with customers.
PPP is commonly used as a data link layer protocol for connection over synchronous and asynchronous circuits, where it has largely superseded the older Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) and telephone company mandated standards (such as Link Access Protocol, Balanced (LAPB) in the X.25 protocol suite). The only requirement for PPP is that the circuit provided be duplex. PPP was designed to work with numerous network layer protocols, including Internet Protocol (IP), TRILL, Novell's Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX), NBF, DECnet and AppleTalk.
Contents [hide]
- 1 Description
- 2 PPP Configuration Options
- 3 PPP frame
- 4 PPP line activation and phases
- 5 PPP over several links
- 6 PPP and tunnels
- 7 See also
- 8 References
Description[edit]Internet protocol suiteApplication layerTransport layerInternet layerLink layer
PPP was designed somewhat after the original HDLC specifications. The designers of PPP included many additional features that had been seen only in proprietary data-link protocols up to that time.
RFC 2516 describes Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE) as a method for transmitting PPP over Ethernet that is sometimes used with DSL. RFC 2364 describes Point-to-Point Protocol over ATM (PPPoA) as a method for transmitting PPP overATM Adaptation Layer 5 (AAL5), which is also a common alternative to PPPoE used with DSL.
PPP is a layered protocol that has three components:
- An encapsulation component that is used to transmit datagrams over the specified physical layer.
- A Link Control Protocol (LCP) to establish, configure, and test the link as well as negotiate capabilities.
- One or more Network Control Protocols (NCP) used to negotiate optional configuration parameters and facilities for the network layer. There is one NCP for each higher-layer protocol supported by PPP.
Automatic self configuration[edit]Link Control Protocol (LCP) initiates and terminates connections gracefully, allowing hosts to negotiate connection options. It is an integral part of PPP, and is defined in the same standard specification. LCP provides automatic configuration of the interfaces at each end (such as setting datagram size, escaped characters, and magic numbers) and for selecting optional authentication. The LCP protocol runs on top of PPP (with PPP protocol number 0xC021) and therefore a basic PPP connection has to be established before LCP is able to configure it.
RFC 1994 describes Challenge-handshake authentication protocol (CHAP), which is preferred for establishing dial-up connections with ISPs. Although deprecated, Password authentication protocol (PAP) is still sometimes used.
Another option for authentication over PPP is Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) described in RFC 2284.
After the link has been established, additional network (layer 3) configuration may take place. Most commonly, the Internet Protocol Control Protocol (IPCP) is used, althoughInternetwork Packet Exchange Control Protocol (IPXCP) and AppleTalk Control Protocol (ATCP) were once very popular.[citation needed] Internet Protocol Version 6 Control Protocol(IPv6CP) will see extended use in the future, when IPv6 replaces IPv4 as the dominant layer-3 protocol.
Multiple network layer protocols[edit]PPP architectureIPLCPCHAP PAP EAPIPCPPPP encapsulationHDLC-like FramingPPPoEPPPoARS-232POSEthernetATMSONET/SDHPPP permits multiple network layer protocols to operate on the same communication link. For every network layer protocol used, a separate Network Control Protocol (NCP) is provided in order to encapsulate and negotiate options for the multiple network layer protocols. It negotiates network-layer information, e.g. network address or compression options, after the connection has been established.
For example, Internet Protocol (IP) uses the IP Control Protocol (IPCP), and Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) uses the Novell IPX Control Protocol (IPX/SPX). NCPs include fields containing standardized codes to indicate the network layer protocol type that the PPP connection encapsulates.
The following NCPs may be used with PPP:
- the Internet Protocol Control Protocol (IPCP) for the Internet Protocol, protocol code number 0x8021, RFC 1332
- the OSI Network Layer Control Protocol (OSINLCP) for the various OSI network layer protocols, protocol code number 0x8023, RFC 1377
- the AppleTalk Control Protocol (ATCP) for AppleTalk, protocol code number 0x8029, RFC 1378
- the Internetwork Packet Exchange Control Protocol (IPXCP) for the Internet Packet Exchange, protocol code number 0x802B, RFC 1552
- the DECnet Phase IV Control Protocol (DNCP) for DNA Phase IV Routing protocol (DECnet Phase IV), protocol code number 0x8027, RFC 1762
- the NetBIOS Frames Control Protocol (NBFCP) for NetBIOS Frames protocol (or NetBEUI as it was called before that), protocol code number 0x803F, RFC 2097
- the IPv6 Control Protocol (IPV6CP) for IPv6, protocol code number 0x8057, RFC 5072
PPP Configuration Options[edit]The previous section introduced the use of LCP options to meet specific WAN connection requirements. PPP may include the following LCP options:
- Authentication - Peer routers exchange authentication messages. Two authentication choices are Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) and Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP). Authentication is explained in the next section.
- Compression - Increases the effective throughput on PPP connections by reducing the amount of data in the frame that must travel across the link. The protocol decompresses the frame at its destination. See RFC 1962 for more details.
- Error detection - Identifies fault conditions. The Quality and Magic Number options help ensure a reliable, loop-free data link. The Magic Number field helps in detecting links that are in a looped-back condition. Until the Magic-Number Configuration Option has been successfully negotiated, the Magic-Number must be transmitted as zero. Magic numbers are generated randomly at each end of the connection.
- Multilink - Provides load balancing several interfaces used by PPP through Multilink PPP (see below).
The Information field contains the PPP payload; it has a variable length with a negotiated maximum called the Maximum Transmission Unit. By default, the maximum is 1500octets. It might be padded on transmission; if the information for a particular protocol can be padded, that protocol must allow information to be distinguished from padding.
Encapsulation[edit]PPP frames are encapsulated in a lower-layer protocol that provides framing and may provide other functions such as a checksum to detect transmission errors. PPP on serial links is usually encapsulated in a framing similar to HDLC, described by IETF RFC 1662.
NameNumber of bytesDescriptionFlag1indicates frame's begin or endAddress1broadcast addressControl1control byteProtocol1 or 2 or 3l in information fieldInformationvariable (0 or more)datagramPaddingvariable (0 or more)optional paddingFCS2 (or 4)error checkThe Flag field is present when PPP with HDLC-like framing is used.
The Address and Control fields always have the value hex FF (for "all stations") and hex 03 (for "unnumbered information"), and can be omitted whenever PPP LCP Address-and-Control-Field-Compression (ACFC) is negotiated.
The frame check sequence (FCS) field is used for determining whether an individual frame has an error. It contains a checksum computed over the frame to provide basic protection against errors in transmission. This is a CRC code similar to the one used for other layer two protocol error protection schemes such as the one used in Ethernet. According to RFC 1662, it can be either 16 bits (2 bytes) or 32 bits (4 bytes) in size (default is 16 bits - Polynomial x16 + x12 + x5 + 1).
The FCS is calculated over the Address, Control, Protocol, Information and Padding fields after the message has been encapsulated.
PPP line activation and phases[edit]
A diagram depicting the phases of PPP according to RFC 1661.
The phases of the Point to Point Protocol according to RFC 1661 are listed below:
Link DeadThis phase occurs when the link fails, or one side has been told to disconnect (e.g. a user has finished his or her dialup connection.)Link Establishment PhaseThis phase is where Link Control Protocol negotiation is attempted. If successful, control goes either to the authentication phase or the Network-Layer Protocol phase, depending on whether authentication is desired.Authentication PhaseThis phase is optional. It allows the sides to authenticate each other before a connection is established. If successful, control goes to the network-layer protocol phase.Network-Layer Protocol PhaseThis phase is where each desired protocols' Network Control Protocols are invoked. For example,IPCP is used in establishing IP service over the line. Data transport for all protocols which are successfully started with their network control protocols also occurs in this phase. Closing down of network protocols also occur in this phase.Link Termination PhaseThis phase closes down this connection. This can happen if there is an authentication failure, if there are so many checksum errors that the two parties decide to tear down the link automatically, if the link suddenly fails, or if the user decides to hang up his connection.PPP over several links[edit]Multilink PPP[edit]Multilink PPP (also referred to as MLPPP, MP, MPPP, MLP, or Multilink) provides a method for spreading traffic across multiple distinct PPP connections. It is defined in RFC 1990. It can be used, for example, to connect a home computer to an Internet Service Provider using two traditional 56k modems, or to connect a company through two leased lines.
On a single PPP line frames cannot arrive out of order, but this is possible when the frames are divided among multiple PPP connections. Therefore Multilink PPP must number the fragments so they can be put in the right order again when they arrive.
Multilink PPP is an example of a link aggregation technology. Cisco IOS Release 11.1 and later supports Multilink PPP.
Multiclass PPP[edit]With PPP, one cannot establish several simultaneous distinct PPP connections over a single link.
That's not possible with Multilink PPP either. Multilink PPP uses contiguous numbers for all the fragments of a packet, and as a consequence it is not possible to suspend the sending of a sequence of fragments of one packet in order to send another packet. This prevents from running Multilink PPP multiple times on the same links.
Multiclass PPP is a kind of Multilink PPP where each "class" of traffic uses a separate sequence number space and reassembly buffer. Multiclass PPP is defined in RFC 2686.
PPP and tunnels[edit]Simplified OSI protocol stack for an example SSH+PPP tunnelApplicationFTPSMTPHTTP…DNS…TransportTCPUDPNetworkIPData LinkPPPApplicationSSHTransportTCPNetworkIPData LinkEthernetATMPhysicalCables, Hubs, and so onDerived protocols[edit]PPTP is a form of PPP between two hosts via GRE using encryption (MPPE) and compression (MPPC).
PPP as a layer 2 protocol between both ends of a tunnel[edit]Many protocols can be used to tunnel data over IP networks. Some of them, like SSL, SSH, or L2TP create virtual network interfaces and give the impression of a direct physical connections between the tunnel endpoints. On a Linux host for example, these interfaces would be called tun0.
As there are only two endpoints on a tunnel, the tunnel is a point-to-point connection and PPP is a natural choice as a data link layer protocol between the virtual network interfaces. PPP can assign IP addresses to these virtual interfaces, and these IP addresses can be used, for example, to route between the networks on both sides of the tunnel.
IPsec in tunneling mode does not create virtual physical interfaces at the end of the tunnel, since the tunnel is handled directly by the TCP/IP stack. L2TP can be used to provide these interfaces, this technique is called L2TP/IPsec. In this case too, PPP provides IP addresses to the extremities of the tunnel.
See also[edit]
- Diameter
- Extensible Authentication Protocol
- Hayes command set
- Link Access Procedure for Modems (LAPM)
- Multiprotocol Encapsulation (MPE) for MPEG transport stream
- Point-to-Point Protocol daemon (PPPD)
- PPPoX
- RADIUS
- Shortest Path Bridging
- Unidirectional Lightweight Encapsulation (ULE) for MPEG transport stream
- RFC 1661, Standard 51, The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
- RFC 1662, Standard 51, PPP in HDLC-like Framing
- RFC 1962, PPP Compression Control Protocol (CCP)
- RFC 1963, PPP Serial Data transport Protocol
- RFC 1990, The PPP Multilink Protocol (MP)
- RFC 1994, PPP Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP)
- RFC 2153, Informational, PPP Vendor Extensions
- RFC 2284, PPP Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP)
- RFC 2364, PPP over ATM
- RFC 2516, PPP over Ethernet
- RFC 2615, PPP over SONET/SDH
- RFC 2686, The Multi-Class Extension to Multi-Link PPP
- RFC 2687, Proposed Standard, PPP in a Real-time Oriented HDLC-like Framing
- RFC 5072, IP Version 6 over PPP
- RFC 5172, Negotiation for IPv6 Datagram Compression Using IPv6 Control Protocol
- RFC 6361, PPP Transparent Interconnection of Lots of Links (TRILL) Protocol Control Protocol
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Networking 101: Understanding NAT and PATWhen is NAT not NAT? When the folks talking about it mean PAT. Networking 101 clears up some confusion on network address translation.By Charlie Schluting | Posted Sep 17, 2006Page of | Back to Page 1
Due in large part to alleged NAT support on consumer devices, many people are confused about what NAT really is. Network Address Translation is used for many purposes, including but certainly not limited to, saving IP addresses. In this installment of Networking 101, we'll try to clear all this up.
NAT is a feature of a router that will translate IP addresses. When a packet comes in, it will be rewritten in order to forward it to a host that is not the IP destination. A router will keep track of this translation, and when the host sends a reply, it will translate back the other way.
Home users who talk about NAT are actually talking about PAT, or Port Address Translation. This is quite easy to remember: PAT translates ports, as the name implies, and likewise, NAT translates addresses. Sometimes PAT is also called Overloaded NAT. It doesn't really matter what you call it, just be careful about blanket "NAT can't" statements: they are likely incorrect.
Now that that's out of the way, let's clarify some terminology required for a NAT discussion. When we refer to the inside, we're talking about the internal network interface that receives egress traffic. This internal network may or may not be using private addresses—more on those in a minute. The outside refers to the external-facing network interface, the one that receives ingress traffic. In the real world, it is not the case that NAT is simply using a single outside IP; translating traffic into internal IPs and ports. That's what your Linksys does.
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The "inside" of a NAT configuration is not synonymous with "private" or RFC1918 addresses. The often-referred-to "non-routable" addresses are not unroutable. You may configure most any router to pass traffic for these private IP subnets. If you try and pass a packet to your ISP for any of these addresses, it will be dropped. This is what "non-routable" means: not routable on the Internet. You can and should mix RFC1918 addresses (for management interfaces) on your local internal network.
NAT is not used to simply share a single IP address. But when it is, in this strange configuration that's really called PAT, issues can arise. Say two geeks want to throw up an IPIP tunnel between their networks so they can avoid all the issues of firewall rules and state-keeping. If they both use the same IP subnet, they can't just join two networks together: they won't be able to broadcast for each other, so they will never communicate, right? It would seem that one side or the other would have to renumber their entire subnet, but there is a trick. Using a semi-complicated NAT and DNS setup, the hosts could actually communicate. This is another case of blanket "NAT is evil" statements actually having little reflection on reality. This issue does come up frequently when two companies merge and various branch offices need to communicate.
So why in the world would someone want to use one external IP and map it to one internal IP, as opposed to just translating the port? Policy. It's even likely that both sides will use real bona fide Internet IP addresses. Everyone understands that NAT (the naive definition) will keep track of state; it's the only way to make translations happen. What they may not realize is that stateful filtering is a powerful security mechanism.
Stateful filtering means that the router will keep track of a TCP connection. Remember from our previous installment on TCP and its followup that a TCP connection consists of four parts: the remote and local IP address, and the connected ports. Stateful filters verify that every packet into the network is part of an already established, pre-verified connection.
Imagine a b2b transaction that ships very sensitive data across the Internet, even between continents. It's not feasible to lay fiber for this purpose, so the Internet has to be used. What to do? How would you secure this transaction, or set of transactions? It can be done with IPSEC, but also utilizing NAT at the same time. Each side will have a 1:1 (real) NAT router configured to only allow specific connections from specific hosts. This guarantees that from either network, only authorized hosts will be making a connection. This also guarantees that hosts on both sides have been minimally exposed, and very unlikely compromised, since nobody else can get into that network.
Once the session starts, packets are carefully inspected in and out of each NAT router. If something nefarious happens, and someone in-between is able to inject a forged packet into the stream, at least one side will notice. One of the NAT routers will be able to detect that a sequence number anomaly has occurred, and can immediately terminate all communication. When the TCP session completes with a FIN, the state is wiped clean.
In much the same way, home users take advantage of PAT to keep their less-than-secure machines from being completely taken over on a daily basis. When a connection attempt from the outside hits the external interface of a PAT device, it cannot be forwarded unless state already exists. State setup can only be done from the inside, when an egress attempt is made. If this version of NAT didn't exist on such a wide scale, the Internet would be a completely different place. Nobody would ever successfully install and patch a Windows computer prior to a compromise without some the minimal protection provided by PAT.
Clearly NAT is useful in these cases. So why do people say that NAT is evil? They are likely referring to PAT, the bastard child of NAT. It's called "overloaded" for a reason.
IPv6 introduces the ability to have way more IP addresses than we really need. Does that mean that IPv6 will eliminate NAT? No. It also won't eliminate the usage of NAT everyone's familiar with: PAT. We all need somewhere to stow Windows boxes away from the myriad of uninitiated connection attempts that come from the Internet.
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4 Comments (click to add your comment)
By jazzed February 12 2015 08:47 PST
Not bad, but overly complicated.
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By Quintron August 03 2014 05:40 PDT
I don't know why someone is complaining. The main difference between NAT and PAT is explain perfectly well.
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By unbeldi February 21 2014 20:23 PST
Terrible article and actually wrong in many ways.
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By urfi March 01 2011 12:24 PST
I am searching for complete information for nat and pat.
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Cisco ASA 5500 Series Configuration Guide using the CLI, 8.2
Configuring Dynamic NAT and PAT
- Cisco ASA 5500 Series Configuration Guide using the CLI, 8.2
About This Guide
Glossary- Getting Started and General Information
- Configuring Access Lists
- Configuring IP Routing
- Configuring NAT
- Configuring High Availability
- Configuring Access Control
- Configuring Application Layer Procotol Inspection
- Configuring Unified Communications
- Configuring Advanced Connection Settings
- Configuring Applications on SSMs and SSCs
- Configuring VPN
- Monitoring
- System Administration
- Reference
Downloads: This chapter (PDF - 249.0 KB) The complete book (PDF - 14.43 MB) | FeedbackTable Of ContentsConfiguring Dynamic NAT and PAT
Information About Dynamic NAT and PAT
Information About Dynamic NAT
Information About PAT
Information About Implementing Dynamic NAT and PAT
Licensing Requirements for Dynamic NAT and PAT
Guidelines and Limitations
Default Settings
Configuring Dynamic NAT or Dynamic PAT
Task Flow for Configuring Dynamic NAT and PAT
Configuring Policy Dynamic NAT
Configuring Regular Dynamic NAT
Monitoring Dynamic NAT and PAT
Configuration Examples for Dynamic NAT and PAT
Feature History for Dynamic NAT and PAT
Configuring Dynamic NAT and PATThis section describes dynamic network address translation. The configuration for dynamic NAT and PAT are almost identical; for NAT you specify a range of mapped addresses, and for PAT you specify a single address.
This chapter includes the following topics:
•Information About Dynamic NAT and PAT
•Licensing Requirements for Dynamic NAT and PAT
•Guidelines and Limitations
•Default Settings
•Configuring Dynamic NAT or Dynamic PAT
•Monitoring Dynamic NAT and PAT
•Configuration Examples for Dynamic NAT and PAT
•Feature History for Dynamic NAT and PAT
Information About Dynamic NAT and PATThis section includes the following topics:
•Information About Dynamic NAT
•Information About PAT
•Information About Implementing Dynamic NAT and PAT
Information About Dynamic NATDynamic NAT translates a group of real addresses to a pool of mapped addresses that are routable on the destination network. The mapped pool may include fewer addresses than the real group. When a host you want to translate accesses the destination network, the ASA assigns the host an IP address from the mapped pool. The translation is added only when the real host initiates the connection. The translation is in place only for the duration of the connection, and a given user does not keep the same IP address after the translation times out. For an example, see the timeout xlate command in theCisco ASA 5500 Series Command Reference. Users on the destination network, therefore, cannot initiate a reliable connection to a host that uses dynamic NAT, although the connection is allowed by an access list, and the ASA rejects any attempt to connect to a real host address directly. See Chapter 28 "Configuring Static NAT," or Chapter 30 "Configuring Static PAT," for information about how to obtain reliable access to hosts.
Note In some cases, a translation is added for a connection, although the session is denied by the ASA. This condition occurs with an outbound access list, a management-only interface, or a backup interface in which the translation times out normally. For an example, see the show xlate command in the Cisco ASA 5500 Series Command Reference.
Figure 29-1 shows a remote host attempting to connect to the real address. The connection is denied because the ASA only allows returning connections to the mapped address.
Figure 29-1 Remote Host Attempts to Connect to the Real Address
Figure 29-2 shows a remote host attempting to initiate a connection to a mapped address. This address is not currently in the translation table; therefore, the ASA drops the packet.
Figure 29-2 Remote Host Attempts to Initiate a Connection to a Mapped Address
Note For the duration of the translation, a remote host can initiate a connection to the translated host if an access list allows it. Because the address is unpredictable, a connection to the host is unlikely. Nevertheless, in this case you can rely on the security of the access list.
Dynamic NAT has these disadvantages:
•If the mapped pool has fewer addresses than the real group, you could run out of addresses if the amount of traffic is more than expected.
Use PAT if this event occurs often because PAT provides over 64,000 translations using ports of a single address.
•You have to use a large number of routable addresses in the mapped pool; if the destination network requires registered addresses, such as the Internet, you might encounter a shortage of usable addresses.
The advantage of dynamic NAT is that some protocols cannot use PAT. PAT does not work with the following:
•IP protocols that do not have a port to overload, such as GRE version 0.
•Some multimedia applications that have a data stream on one port, the control path on another port, and are not open standard.
See the "When to Use Application Protocol Inspection" section for more information about NAT and PAT support.
Information About PATPAT translates multiple real addresses to a single mapped IP address by translating the real address and source port to the mapped address and a unique port. If available, the real source port number is used for the mapped port. However, if the real port is not available, by default the mapped ports are chosen from the same range of ports as the real port number: 0 to 511, 512 to 1023, and 1024 to 65535. Therefore, ports below 1024 have only a small PAT pool that can be used.
Each connection requires a separate translation because the source port differs for each connection. For example, 10.1.1.1:1025 requires a separate translation from 10.1.1.1:1026.
After the connection expires, the port translation also expires after 30 seconds of inactivity. The timeout is not configurable. Users on the destination network cannot reliably initiate a connection to a host that uses PAT (even if the connection is allowed by an access list). Not only can you not predict the real or mapped port number of the host, but the ASA does not create a translation at all unless the translated host is the initiator. See Chapter 28 "Configuring Static NAT," or Chapter 30 "Configuring Static PAT," for information about reliable access to hosts.
PAT lets you use a single mapped address, thus conserving routable addresses. You can even use the ASA interface IP address as the PAT address. PAT does not work with some multimedia applications that have a data stream that is different from the control path. See the "When to Use Application Protocol Inspection" section for more information about NAT and PAT support.
Note For the duration of the translation, a remote host can initiate a connection to the translated host if an access list allows it. Because the port address (both real and mapped) is unpredictable, a connection to the host is unlikely. Nevertheless, in this case you can rely on the security of the access list. However, policy PAT does not support time-based ACLs.
Information About Implementing Dynamic NAT and PATFor dynamic NAT and PAT, you first configure a nat command identifying the real addresses on a given interface that you want to translate. Then you configure a separate global command to specify the mapped addresses when exiting another interface (in the case of PAT, this is one address). Each natcommand matches a global command by comparing the NAT ID, a number that you assign to each command. (See Figure 29-3.)
Figure 29-3 nat and global ID Matching
See the following commands for this example:
hostname(config)# nat (inside) 1 10.1.2.0 255.255.255.0
hostname(config)# global (outside) 1 209.165.201.3-209.165.201.10
You can enter multiple nat commands using the same NAT ID on one or more interfaces; they all use the same global command when traffic exits a given interface. For example, you can configure nat commands for Inside and DMZ interfaces, both on NAT ID 1. Then you configure a global command on the Outside interface that is also on ID 1. Traffic from the Inside interface and the DMZ interface share a mapped pool or a PAT address when exiting the Outside interface. (See Figure 29-4.)
Figure 29-4 nat Commands on Multiple Interfaces
See the following commands for this example:
hostname(config)# nat (inside) 1 10.1.2.0 255.255.255.0
hostname(config)# nat (inside) 1 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0
hostname(config)# nat (dmz) 1 10.1.1.0 255.255.255.0
hostname(config)# global (outside) 1 209.165.201.3-209.165.201.10
You can also enter a global command for each interface using the same NAT ID. If you enter a global command for the Outside and DMZ interfaces on ID 1, then the Inside nat command identifies traffic to be translated when going to both the Outside and the DMZ interfaces. Similarly, if you also enter a natcommand for the DMZ interface on ID 1, then the global command on the Outside interface is also used for DMZ traffic. (See Figure 29-5.)
Figure 29-5 global and nat Commands on Multiple Interfaces
See the following commands for this example:
hostname(config)# nat (inside) 1 10.1.2.0 255.255.255.0
hostname(config)# nat (dmz) 1 10.1.1.0 255.255.255.0
hostname(config)# global (outside) 1 209.165.201.3-209.165.201.10
hostname(config)# global (dmz) 1 10.1.1.23
If you use different NAT IDs, you can identify different sets of real addresses to have different mapped addresses. For example, on the Inside interface, you can have two nat commands on two different NAT IDs. On the Outside interface, you configure two global commands for these two IDs. Then, when traffic from Inside network A exits the Outside interface, the IP addresses are translated to pool A addresses; while traffic from Inside network B are translated to pool B addresses. (See Figure 29-6.) If you use policy NAT, you can specify the same real addresses for multiple nat commands, as long as the destination addresses and ports are unique in each access list.
Figure 29-6 Different NAT IDs
See the following commands for this example:
hostname(config)# nat (inside) 1 10.1.2.0 255.255.255.0
hostname(config)# nat (inside) 2 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0
hostname(config)# global (outside) 1 209.165.201.3-209.165.201.10
hostname(config)# global (outside) 2 209.165.201.11
You can enter multiple global commands for one interface using the same NAT ID; the ASA uses the dynamic NAT global commands first, in the order they are in the configuration, and then it uses the PAT global commands in order. You might want to enter both a dynamic NAT global command and a PATglobal command if you need to use dynamic NAT for a particular application, but you should have a backup PAT statement in case all the dynamic NAT addresses are depleted. Similarly, you might enter two PAT statements if you need more than the approximately 64,000 PAT sessions that a single PAT mapped statement supports. (See Figure 29-7.)
Figure 29-7 NAT and PAT Together
See the following commands for this example:
hostname(config)# nat (inside) 1 10.1.2.0 255.255.255.0
hostname(config)# global (outside) 1 209.165.201.3-209.165.201.4
hostname(config)# global (outside) 1 209.165.201.5
For outside NAT (from outside to inside), you need to use the outside keyword in the nat command. If you also want to translate the same traffic when it accesses an outside interface (for example, traffic on a DMZ is translated when accessing the Inside and the Outside interfaces), then you must configure a separate nat command without the outside option. In this case, you can identify the same addresses in both statements and use the same NAT ID. (SeeFigure 29-8.) Note that for outside NAT (DMZ interface to Inside interface), the inside host uses a static command to allow outside access, so both the source and destination addresses are translated.
Figure 29-8 Outside NAT and Inside NAT Combined
See the following commands for this example:
hostname(config)# nat (dmz) 1 10.1.1.0 255.255.255.0 outside
hostname(config)# nat (dmz) 1 10.1.1.0 255.255.255.0
hostname(config)# static (inside,dmz) 10.1.1.5 10.1.2.27 netmask 255.255.255.255
hostname(config)# global (outside) 1 209.165.201.3-209.165.201.4
hostname(config)# global (inside) 1 10.1.2.30-1-10.1.2.40
When you specify a group of IP address(es) in a nat command, then you must perform NAT on that group of addresses when they access any lower or same security level interface; you must apply a global command with the same NAT ID on each interface, or use a static command. NAT is not required for that group when it accesses a higher security interface because to perform NAT from outside to inside you must create a separate nat command using theoutside keyword. If you do apply outside NAT, then the NAT requirements preceding come into effect for that group of addresses when they access all higher security interfaces. Traffic identified by a static command is not affected.
Licensing Requirements for Dynamic NAT and PATThe following table shows the licensing requirements for these features:
Model
License Requirement
All models
Base License.
Guidelines and LimitationsThis section includes the guidelines and limitations for this feature.
Context Mode Guidelines
•Supported in single and multiple context mode.
Firewall Mode Guidelines
•Supported only in routed and transparent firewall mode.
Additional Guidelines and Limitations
The following features are not supported for dynamic NAT and PAT:
•If you change the NAT configuration, and you do not want to wait for existing translations to time out before the new NAT information is used, you can clear the translation table using the clear xlate command. However, clearing the translation table disconnects all current connections that use translations.
Note If you remove a dynamic NAT or PAT rule, and then add a new rule with mapped addresses that overlap the addresses in the removed rule, then the new rule will not be used until all connections associated with the removed rule time out or are cleared using the clear xlatecommand. This safeguard ensures that the same address is not assigned to multiple hosts.
•You can identify overlapping addresses in other nat commands. For example, you can identify 10.1.1.0 in one command but 10.1.1.1 in another. The traffic is matched to a policy NAT command in order, until the first match, or for regular NAT, using the best match.
•All types of NAT support policy NAT except for NAT exemption. NAT exemption uses an access list to identify the real addresses, but it differs from policy NAT in that the ports are not considered. You can accomplish the same result as NAT exemption using static identity NAT, which does support policy NAT.
•When using dynamic PAT, for the duration of the translation a remote host can initiate a connection to the translated host if an access list allows it. Because the address (both real and mapped) is unpredictable, a connection to the host is unlikely. However, in this case you can rely on the security of the access list.
•If the mapped pool has fewer addresses than the real group, you might run out of addresses if the amount of traffic is more than expected. Use PAT if this event occurs often because PAT provides over 64,000 translations using ports of a single address.
•You have to use a large number of routable addresses in the mapped pool; if the destination network requires registered addresses, such as the Internet, you might encounter a shortage of usable addresses.
Default SettingsTable 29-1 lists the command options and default settings for policy NAT and regular NAT. Table 29-2 lists an additional command option for regular NAT.
See the nat command in the Cisco Security Appliance Command Reference for a complete description of command options.
Table 29-1 Configuring Command Options and Defaults for Policy NAT and Regular NAT
Command
Purpose
access-listacl_name
Identifies the real addresses and destination addresses using an extended access list. Create the extended access list using the access-list extended command. (See Chapter 11 "Adding an Extended Access List.") This access list should include only permit ACEs. You can optionally specify the real and destination ports in the access list using the eq operator. Policy NAT considers the inactive and time-range keywords, but it does not support ACL with all inactive and time-range ACEs.
nat_id
An integer between 1 and 65535. The NAT ID should match a global command NAT ID. See the"Information About Implementing Dynamic NAT and PAT" section for more information about how NAT IDs are used. 0 is reserved for NAT exemption. (See the "Configuring Static Identity NAT" section for more information about NAT exemption.)
dns
If your nat command includes the address of a host that has an entry in a DNS server, and the DNS server is on a different interface from a client, then the client and the DNS server need different addresses for the host; one needs the mapped address and one needs the real address. This option rewrites the address in the DNS reply to the client. The translated host needs to be on the same interface as either the client or the DNS server. Typically, hosts that need to allow access from other interfaces use a static translation, so this option is more likely to be used with the static command. (See the "DNS and NAT" section for more information.)
outside
If this interface is on a lower security level than the interface you identify by the matching globalstatement, then you must enter outside to identify the NAT instance as outside NAT
norandomseq,tcptcp_max_conns,udpudp_max_conns, and emb_limit
These keywords set connection limits. However, we recommend using a more versatile method for setting connection limits; for more information, see Chapter 53 "Configuring Connection Limits and Timeouts."
The default value for tcp_max_conns, emb_limit, and udp_max_conns is 0 (unlimited), which is the maximum available.
Table 29-2 Command Options and Defaults for Regular NAT
nat_id
An integer between 1 and 2147483647. The NAT ID must match a global command NAT ID. See the "Information About Implementing Dynamic NAT and PAT" section for more information about how NAT IDs are used. 0 is reserved for identity NAT. See the "Configuring Identity NAT" section for more information about identity NAT.
Configuring Dynamic NAT or Dynamic PATThis section describes how to configure dynamic NAT or dynamic PAT, and it includes the following topics:
•Task Flow for Configuring Dynamic NAT and PAT
•Configuring Policy Dynamic NAT
•Configuring Regular Dynamic NAT
Task Flow for Configuring Dynamic NAT and PATUse the following guidelines to configure either Dynamic NAT or PAT:
•First configure a nat command, identifying the real addresses on a given interface that you want to translate.
•Then configure a separate global command to specify the mapped addresses when exiting another interface. (In the case of PAT, this is one address.) Each nat command matches a global command by comparing the NAT ID, a number that you assign to each command.
Note The configuration for dynamic NAT and PAT are almost identical; for NAT you specify a range of mapped addresses, and for PAT you specify a single address.
Figure 29-9 shows a typical dynamic NAT scenario. Only translated hosts can create a NAT session, and responding traffic is allowed back. The mapped address is dynamically assigned from a pool defined by the global command.
Figure 29-9 Dynamic NAT
Figure 29-10 shows a typical dynamic PAT scenario. Only translated hosts can create a NAT session, and responding traffic is allowed back. The mapped address defined by the global command is the same for each translation, but the port is dynamically assigned.
Figure 29-10 Dynamic PAT
For more information about dynamic NAT, see the "Information About Dynamic NAT" section. For more information about PAT, see the "Information About PAT" section.
Configuring Policy Dynamic NATTo configure dynamic NAT and PAT and identify the real addresses on one interface that are translated to mapped addressed on another interface, perform the following steps:
Command
Purpose
Step 1
nat (real_interface) nat_id access-list acl_name [dns] [outside][[tcp] tcp_max_conns [emb_limit]] [udp udp_max_conns][norandomseq]
Example:
hostname(config)# nat (inside) 1 access-list NET1 tcp 0 2000 udp 10000
Configures dynamic policy NAT or PAT, identifying the real addresses on a given interface that you want to translate to one of a pool of mapped addresses.
The real_interface specifies the name of the interface connected to the real IP address network.
The nat_id should match a nat command NAT ID. The matching nat command identifies the addresses that you want to translate when they exit this interface. You can specify a single address (for PAT) or a range of addresses (for NAT). The range can go across subnet boundaries if desired. For example, you can specify the following "supernet": 192.168.1.1-192.168.2.254
For policy NAT, the nat_id argument is an integer between 1 and 65535.
The access-list keyword identifies the real addresses and destination/source addresses using an extended access list.
The acl_name argument identifies the name of the access list.
The dns option rewrites the A record, or address record, in DNS replies that match this static. For DNS replies traversing from a mapped interface to any other interface, the A record is rewritten from the mapped value to the real value. Inversely, for DNS replies traversing from any interface to a mapped interface, the A record is rewritten from the real value to the mapped value.
Enter the outside optional keyword if this interface is on a lower security level than the interface you identify by the matching global statement. This feature is called outside NAT or bidirectional NAT.
The tcp option specifies the protocol at TCP.
The tcp_max_cons argument specifies the maximum number of simultaneous TCP connections allowed to the local-host (see the local-host command). The default is 0, which means unlimited connections. (Idle connections are closed after the idle timeout specified by the timeout conn command.)
The emb_limit option specifies the maximum number of embryonic connections per host. The default is 0, which means unlimited embryonic connections.
The udp udp_max_conns options specify the maximum number of simultaneous UDP connections allowed to the local host. The default is 0, which means unlimited connections.
The norandomseq option disables TCP ISN randomization protection.
Step 2
global (mapped_interface) nat_id {mapped_ip[-mapped_ip] | interface}
Example:
hostname(config)# global (outside) 1 209.165.202.129
Identifies the mapped address(es) to which you want to translate the real addresses when they exit a particular interface. (In the case of PAT, this is one address.)
The mapped_interface option specifies the name of the interface connected to the mapped IP address network.
The nat_id argument must match a global command NAT ID. See the "Information About Implementing Dynamic NAT and PAT" section for more information about using NAT IDs.
The mapped_ip mapped_ip specify the mapped address(es) to which you want to translate the real addresses when they exit the mapped interface. If you specify a single address, then you configure PAT. If you specify a range of addresses, then you configure dynamic NAT. If the external network is connected to the Internet, each global IP address must be registered with the Network Information Center (NIC).
The interface keyword uses the interface IP address as the mapped address. Use this keyword if you want to use the interface address, but the address is dynamically assigned using DHCP.
See Table 29-1, "Command Options and Defaults for Policy NAT and Regular NAT," for information about other command options.
Configuring Regular Dynamic NATTo configure regular dynamic NAT and identify the real addresses on one interface that are translated to mapped addressed on another interface, perform the following steps:
Command
Purpose
Step 1
nat (real_interface) nat_id real_ip [mask [dns] [outside]] [[tcp] tcp_max_conns [emb_limit]] [udp udp_max_conns]] [norandomseq]
Example:
hostname(config)# nat (inside) 1 10.1.2.0 255.255.255.0
Configures dynamic NAT or PAT, identifying the real addresses on a given interface that you want to translate to one of a pool of mapped addresses.
The nat_id should match a nat command NAT ID. The matching nat command identifies the addresses that you want to translate when they exit this interface. You can specify a single address (for PAT) or a range of addresses (for NAT). The range can go across subnet boundaries if desired. For example, you can specify the following "supernet": 192.168.1.1-192.168.2.254. For regular NAT, the nat_id argument is an integer between 1 and 2147483647.
The real_ip argument specifies the real address that you want to translate. You can use 0.0.0.0 (or the abbreviation 0) to specify all addresses.
The mask argument specifies the subnet mask for the real addresses. If you do not enter a mask, then the default mask for the IP address class is used.
The dns keyword rewrites the A record, or address record, in DNS replies that match this command. For DNS replies traversing from a mapped interface to any other interface, the A record is rewritten from the mapped value to the real value. Inversely, for DNS replies traversing from any interface to a mapped interface, the A record is rewritten from the real value to the mapped value.
Enter the outside option if this interface is on a lower security level than the interface you identify by the matching global statement. This feature is called outside NAT or bidirectional NAT.
The tcp tcp_max_cons argument specifies the maximum number of simultaneous TCP connections allowed to the local-host. (See the local-host command.) The default is 0, which means unlimited connections. (Idle connections are closed after the idle timeout specified by the timeout conncommand.)
The udp udp_max_conns specify the maximum number of simultaneous UDP connections allowed to the local-host. (See the local-host command.) The default is 0, which means unlimited connections. (Idle connections are closed after the idle timeout specified by the timeout conncommand.)
The norandomseq keyword disables TCP ISN randomization protection. Not supported for NAT exemption (nat 0 access-list). Although you can enter this argument at the CLI, it is not saved to the configuration.
(For additional information about command options, see theCisco Security Appliance Command Reference.)
Step 2
global (mapped_interface) nat_id {mapped_ip[-mapped_ip] | interface}
Example:
hostname(config)# global (outside) 1 209.165.201.3-209.165.201.10
Identifies the mapped address(es) to which you want to translate the real addresses when they exit a particular interface.
The mapped_interface option specifies the name of the interface connected to the mapped IP address network.
The nat_id must match a global command NAT ID. For more information about how NAT IDs are used, see the"Information About Implementing Dynamic NAT and PAT" section.
The mapped_ip mapped_ip specify the mapped address(es) to which you want to translate the real addresses when they exit the mapped interface. If you specify a single address, then you configure PAT. If you specify a range of addresses, then you configure dynamic NAT. If the external network is connected to the Internet, each global IP address must be registered with the Network Information Center (NIC).
The interface keyword uses the interface IP address as the mapped address. Use this keyword if you want to use the interface address, but the address is dynamically assigned using DHCP.
See Table 29-1, "Command Options and Defaults for Policy NAT and Regular NAT," for information about other command options, and see and Table 29-2 for additional information specific to regular NAT only.
Monitoring Dynamic NAT and PATTo monitor dynamic NAT and PAT, perform the following task:
Command
Purpose
show running-config nat
Displays a pool of global IP addresses that are associated with the network.
Configuration Examples for Dynamic NAT and PATFor example, to translate the 10.1.1.0/24 network on the inside interface, enter the following command:
hostname(config)# nat (inside) 1 10.1.1.0 255.255.255.0
hostname(config)# global (outside) 1 209.165.201.1-209.165.201.30
To identify a pool of addresses for dynamic NAT as well as a PAT address for when the NAT pool is exhausted, enter the following commands:
hostname(config)# nat (inside) 1 10.1.1.0 255.255.255.0
hostname(config)# global (outside) 1 209.165.201.5
hostname(config)# global (outside) 1 209.165.201.10-209.165.201.20
To translate the lower security dmz network addresses so they appear to be on the same network as the inside network (10.1.1.0), for example, to simplify routing, enter the following commands:
hostname(config)# nat (dmz) 1 10.1.2.0 255.255.255.0 outside dns
hostname(config)# global (inside) 1 10.1.1.45
To identify a single real address with two different destination addresses using policy NAT, enter the following commands (see Figure 26-3 for a related figure):
hostname(config)# access-list NET1 permit ip 10.1.2.0 255.255.255.0 209.165.201.0 255.255.255.224
hostname(config)# access-list NET2 permit ip 10.1.2.0 255.255.255.0 209.165.200.224 255.255.255.224
hostname(config)# nat (inside) 1 access-list NET1 tcp 0 2000 udp 10000
hostname(config)# global (outside) 1 209.165.202.129
hostname(config)# nat (inside) 2 access-list NET2 tcp 1000 500 udp 2000
hostname(config)# global (outside) 2 209.165.202.130
To identify a single real address/destination address pair that use different ports using policy NAT, enter the following commands (see Figure 26-4 for a related figure):
hostname(config)# access-list WEB permit tcp 10.1.2.0 255.255.255.0 209.165.201.11 255.255.255.255 eq 80
hostname(config)# access-list TELNET permit tcp 10.1.2.0 255.255.255.0 209.165.201.11 255.255.255.255 eq 23
hostname(config)# nat (inside) 1 access-list WEB
hostname(config)# global (outside) 1 209.165.202.129
hostname(config)# nat (inside) 2 access-list TELNET
hostname(config)# global (outside) 2 209.165.202.130
Feature History for Dynamic NAT and PATTable 29-3 lists the release history for this feature.
Table 29-3 Feature History for Dynamic NAT and PAT
Feature Name
Releases
Feature Information
NAT in transparent firewall mode
8.0(2)
NAT is now supported in transparent firewall mode.
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Cisco IOS Configuration Fundamentals Command Reference
Introduction
- Cisco IOS Configuration Fundamentals Command Reference
Introduction
A through B
C commands
D through E
F through K
L through mode
monitor event-trace through Q
R through setup
show through show fm summary
show gsr through show monitor event trace
show monitor permit list through show process memory
show protocols through showmon
slave auto-sync config through terminal-type
test cable-diagnostics through xmodem
ASCII Character Set and Hexadecimal Values
Downloads: This chapter (PDF - 98.0 KB) The complete book (PDF - 26.08 MB) | FeedbackTable Of ContentsIntroduction
Cisco IOS IFS Command Syntax
Obtaining Documentation, Obtaining Support, and Security Guidelines
IntroductionThe Cisco IOS Configuration Fundamentals Command Reference provides command documentation associated with the following tasks:
•Using the Cisco IOS Command-Line Interface (CLI)
•Configuration Using Setup and AutoInstall
•Configuring Operating Characteristics for Terminals
•Managing Connections, Logins, Menus, and System Banners
–Configure user menus and banners
•Using the Cisco Web Browser User Interface (UI)
–Using the HTTP server-based UI as an alternative to the CLI
•Using the Cisco IOS Integrated File System (IFS)
–The basics of filesystem use and Cisco IOS software's filesystem infrastructure
•Configuring Basic File Transfer Services
–Copy, move, and delete files locally or across the network
•Managing Configuration Files
•Loading, Maintaining, and Upgrading System Images
•Rebooting
For further information about performing these tasks, refer to the Cisco IOS Configuration Fundamentals Configuration Guide for your release.
Note Some commands previously documented in this Command Reference have been moved to other books:
Commands related to system management and network monitoring can be found in the Cisco IOS Network Management Command Reference.
Command reference documentation for the Cisco IOS software feature "Service Assurance Agent (SAA)" can be found in the the Cisco IOS IP SLAs Command Reference.
Cisco IOS IFS Command SyntaxSome commands in this book use URLs (uniform resource locators) as part of the command syntax. URLs used in the Cisco IOS Integrated File System (IFS) contain two parts: a file system or network prefix, and a file identification suffix. The following tables list URL keywords that can be used in the source-url and destination-url arguments for all commands in this book. The prefixes listed below can also be used in the filesystem arguments in this document.
Table 8 lists common URL network prefixes used to indicate a device on the network.
Table 8 Network Prefixes for Cisco IFS URLs
Prefix
Description
ftp:
Specifies a File Transfer Protocol (FTP) network server.
rcp:
Specifies an remote copy protocol (rcp) network server.
tftp:
Specifies a TFTP server.
Table 9 lists the available suffix options (file indentification suffixes) for the URL prefixes used in Table 8.
Table 9 File ID Suffixes for Cisco IFS URLs
Prefix
Suffix Options
ftp:
[[//[username[:password]@]location]/directory]/filename
For example:
ftp://network-config (prefix://filename)
ftp://user1:[email protected]/config-files
rcp:
rcp:[[//[username@]location]/directory]/filename
tftp:
tftp:[[//location]/directory]/filename
Table 10 lists common URL prefixes used to indicate memory locations on the system.
Table 10 File System Prefixes for Cisco IFS URLs
Prefix
Description
bootflash:
Boot flash memory.
disk0:
Rotating disk media.
flash: [partition-number]
Flash memory. This prefix is available on all platforms. For platforms that do not have a device namedflash:, the prefix flash: is aliased to slot0:.
Therefore, you can use the prefix flash: to refer to the main Flash memory storage area on all platforms.
flh:
Flash load helper log files.
null:
Null destination for copies. You can copy a remote file to null to determine its size.
nvram:
NVRAM. This is the default location for the running-configuration file.
slavebootflash:
Internal Flash memory on a slave RSP card of a router configured with Dual RSPs.
slavenvram:
NVRAM on a slave RSP card.
slaveslot0:
First PCMCIA card on a slave RSP card.
slaveslot1:
Second PCMCIA card on a slave RSP card.
slot0:
First PCMCIA Flash memory card.
slot1:
Second PCMCIA Flash memory card.
xmodem:
Obtain the file from a network machine using the Xmodem protocol.
ymodem:
Obtain the file from a network machine using the Ymodem protocol.
For details about the Cisco IOS IFS, and for IFS configuration tasks, refer to the "Using the Cisco IOS Integrated File System (IFS)" chapter in the latestCisco IOS Configuration Fundamentals Configuration Guide appropriate for your release version.
Obtaining Documentation, Obtaining Support, and Security GuidelinesFor information on obtaining documentation, obtaining support, providing documentation feedback, security guidelines, and also recommended aliases and general Cisco documents, see the monthly What's New in Cisco Product Documentation, which also lists all new and revised Cisco technical documentation, at:
http://www.cisco.com/en/US/docs/general/whatsnew/whatsnew.html
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IP Calculatoripcalc takes an IP address and netmask and calculates the resulting broadcast, network, Cisco wildcard mask, and host range. By giving a second netmask, you can design subnets and supernets. It is also intended to be a teaching tool and presents the subnetting results as easy-to-understand binary values.
Enter your netmask(s) in CIDR notation (/25) or dotted decimals (255.255.255.0). Inverse netmasks are recognized. If you omit the netmask ipcalc uses the default netmask for the class of your network.
Look at the space between the bits of the addresses: The bits before it are the network part of the address, the bits after it are the host part. You can see two simple facts: In a network address all host bits are zero, in a broadcast address they are all set.
The class of your network is determined by its first bits.
If your network is a private internet according to RFC 1918 this is remarked. When displaying subnets the new bits in the network part of the netmask are marked in a different color
The wildcard is the inverse netmask as used for access control lists in Cisco routers.
Do you want to split your network into subnets? Enter the address and netmask of your original network and play with the second netmask until the result matches your needs.
You can have all this fun at your shell prompt. Originally ipcalc was not intended for creating HTML and still works happily in /usr/local/bin/ :-)
Questions? Comments? Drop me a mail...
Thanks for your ideas and help to make this tool more useful:
Bartosz Fenski Denis A. Hainsworth Foxfair Hu Frank Quotschalla Hermann J. Beckers Igor Zozulya Kevin Ivory Lars Mueller Lutz Pressler Oliver Seufer Scott Davis Steve Kent Sven Anderson Torgen Foertsch Tim Brown
Address (Host or Network)Netmask (i.e. 24)Netmask for sub/supernet (optional) /move to:
No host given
No netmask given (using default netmask of your network's class)
Address: 192.168.0.1 11000000.10101000.00000000 .00000001
Netmask: 255.255.255.0 = 24 11111111.11111111.11111111 .00000000
Wildcard: 0.0.0.255 00000000.00000000.00000000 .11111111
=> Network: 192.168.0.0/24 11000000.10101000.00000000 .00000000 (Class C)
Broadcast: 192.168.0.255 11000000.10101000.00000000 .11111111
HostMin: 192.168.0.1 11000000.10101000.00000000 .00000001
HostMax: 192.168.0.254 11000000.10101000.00000000 .11111110
Hosts/Net: 254 (Private Internet)
Version 0.35.2 2005/07/07Download
07/27/2006 Security information
Screenshot (ipcalc works also at the prompt)
CGI wrapper that produced this page.
Archive
Have a look in the archives for the new version 0.41, with the capability to deaggregate network ranges
How to run this under windows
Debian users can apt-get install ipcalc
2000-2011 Krischan JodiesDear search engines: Please increase the ranking of our local Hackerspace / CCC Göttingen
Enter your netmask(s) in CIDR notation (/25) or dotted decimals (255.255.255.0). Inverse netmasks are recognized. If you omit the netmask ipcalc uses the default netmask for the class of your network.
Look at the space between the bits of the addresses: The bits before it are the network part of the address, the bits after it are the host part. You can see two simple facts: In a network address all host bits are zero, in a broadcast address they are all set.
The class of your network is determined by its first bits.
If your network is a private internet according to RFC 1918 this is remarked. When displaying subnets the new bits in the network part of the netmask are marked in a different color
The wildcard is the inverse netmask as used for access control lists in Cisco routers.
Do you want to split your network into subnets? Enter the address and netmask of your original network and play with the second netmask until the result matches your needs.
You can have all this fun at your shell prompt. Originally ipcalc was not intended for creating HTML and still works happily in /usr/local/bin/ :-)
Questions? Comments? Drop me a mail...
Thanks for your ideas and help to make this tool more useful:
Bartosz Fenski Denis A. Hainsworth Foxfair Hu Frank Quotschalla Hermann J. Beckers Igor Zozulya Kevin Ivory Lars Mueller Lutz Pressler Oliver Seufer Scott Davis Steve Kent Sven Anderson Torgen Foertsch Tim Brown
Address (Host or Network)Netmask (i.e. 24)Netmask for sub/supernet (optional) /move to:
No host given
No netmask given (using default netmask of your network's class)
Address: 192.168.0.1 11000000.10101000.00000000 .00000001
Netmask: 255.255.255.0 = 24 11111111.11111111.11111111 .00000000
Wildcard: 0.0.0.255 00000000.00000000.00000000 .11111111
=> Network: 192.168.0.0/24 11000000.10101000.00000000 .00000000 (Class C)
Broadcast: 192.168.0.255 11000000.10101000.00000000 .11111111
HostMin: 192.168.0.1 11000000.10101000.00000000 .00000001
HostMax: 192.168.0.254 11000000.10101000.00000000 .11111110
Hosts/Net: 254 (Private Internet)
Version 0.35.2 2005/07/07Download
07/27/2006 Security information
Screenshot (ipcalc works also at the prompt)
CGI wrapper that produced this page.
Archive
Have a look in the archives for the new version 0.41, with the capability to deaggregate network ranges
How to run this under windows
Debian users can apt-get install ipcalc
2000-2011 Krischan JodiesDear search engines: Please increase the ranking of our local Hackerspace / CCC Göttingen
Hierarchical internetworking model
The Hierarchical internetworking model, or three-layer model, is a network design model first proposed by Cisco. The three-layer model divides enterprise networks into three layers: core, distribution, and access layer. Each layer provides different services to end-stations and servers
Access layer[edit]End-stations and servers connect to the enterprise at the access layer. Access layer devices are usually commodity switching platforms, and may or may not provide layer 3switching services. The traditional focus at the access layer is minimizing "cost-per-port": the amount of investment the enterprise must make for each provisioned Ethernet port.
Distribution layer[edit]The distribution layer is the "smart" layer in the three-layer model. Routing, filtering, and QoS policies are managed at the distribution layer. Distribution layer devices also often manage individual branch-office WAN connections.
Core layer[edit]The core network provides high-speed, highly-redundant forwarding services to move packets between distribution-layer devices in different regions of the network. Core switches and routers are usually the most powerful, in terms of raw forwarding power, in the enterprise; core network devices manage the highest-speed connections, such as 10 Gigabit Ethernet.
The Hierarchical internetworking model, or three-layer model, is a network design model first proposed by Cisco. The three-layer model divides enterprise networks into three layers: core, distribution, and access layer. Each layer provides different services to end-stations and servers
Access layer[edit]End-stations and servers connect to the enterprise at the access layer. Access layer devices are usually commodity switching platforms, and may or may not provide layer 3switching services. The traditional focus at the access layer is minimizing "cost-per-port": the amount of investment the enterprise must make for each provisioned Ethernet port.
Distribution layer[edit]The distribution layer is the "smart" layer in the three-layer model. Routing, filtering, and QoS policies are managed at the distribution layer. Distribution layer devices also often manage individual branch-office WAN connections.
Core layer[edit]The core network provides high-speed, highly-redundant forwarding services to move packets between distribution-layer devices in different regions of the network. Core switches and routers are usually the most powerful, in terms of raw forwarding power, in the enterprise; core network devices manage the highest-speed connections, such as 10 Gigabit Ethernet.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
"IEEE" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE, I-double-E).
This article relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (August 2014)IEEEFoundedJanuary 1, 1963TypeProfessional OrganizationFocusElectrical, Electronics, Communications, Computer Engineering, Computer Science and Information Technology[1]Location
OriginsMerger of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and theInstitute of Radio EngineersArea served
WorldwideMethodIndustry standards, Conferences, PublicationsMembers
430,000+Key people
Howard E. Michel, President and CEORevenue
US$413 millionWebsitewww.ieee.orgThe Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is a professional association with its corporate office in New York Cityand its operations center in Piscataway, New Jersey. It was formed in 1963 from the amalgamation of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and the Institute of Radio Engineers. Today it is the world's largest association of technical professionals with more than 400,000 members in chapters around the world. Its objectives are the educational and technical advancement of electrical and electronic engineering, telecommunications, computer engineering and allied disciplines.
Contents [hide]
IEEE[edit]IEEE stands for the "Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers". The association is chartered under this full legal name. IEEE's membership has long been composed of engineers and scientists. Allied professionals who are members include computer scientists, software developers, information technology professionals, physicists, and medical doctors, in addition to IEEE's electrical and electronics engineering core. For this reason the organization no longer goes by the full name, except on legal business documents, and is referred to simply as IEEE.
The IEEE is dedicated to advancing technological innovation and excellence. It has about 430,000 members in about 160 countries, slightly less than half of whom reside in theUnited States.[2][3]
The IEEE corporate office is on the 17th floor of 3 Park Avenue in New York City
History[edit]The major interests of the AIEE were wire communications (telegraphy and telephony) and light and power systems. The IRE concerned mostly radio engineering, and was formed from two smaller organizations, the Society of Wireless and Telegraph Engineers and the Wireless Institute. With the rise of electronics in the 1930s, electronics engineers usually became members of the IRE, but the applications of electron tube technology became so extensive that the technical boundaries differentiating the IRE and the AIEE became difficult to distinguish. After World War II, the two organizations became increasingly competitive, and in 1961, the leadership of both the IRE and the AIEE resolved to consolidate the two organizations. The two organizations formally merged as the IEEE on January 1, 1963.
Notable presidents of IEEE and its founding organizations include Elihu Thomson (AIEE, 1889–1890), Alexander Graham Bell (AIEE, 1891–1892), Charles Proteus Steinmetz (AIEE, 1901–1902), Lee De Forest (IRE, 1930), Frederick E. Terman (IRE, 1941), William R. Hewlett (IRE, 1954), Ernst Weber (IRE, 1959; IEEE, 1963), and Ivan Getting (IEEE, 1978).
Organization[edit]The IEEE is incorporated under the Not-for-Profit Corporation Law of the state of New York in the United States.[4] It was formed in 1963 by the merger of the Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE, founded 1912) and the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE, founded 1884).
IEEE's Constitution defines the purposes of the organization as "scientific and educational, directed toward the advancement of the theory and practice of Electrical, Electronics, Communications and Computer Engineering, as well as Computer Science, the allied branches of engineering and the related arts andsciences."[1] In pursuing these goals, the IEEE serves as a major publisher of scientific journals and organizer of conferences, workshops, and symposia (many of which have associated published proceedings). It is also a leading standards development organization for the development of industrial standards (having developed over 900 active industry technical standards) in a broad range of disciplines, including electric power and energy, biomedical technology and healthcare, information technology, information assurance, telecommunications, consumer electronics, transportation, aerospace, and nanotechnology. IEEE develops and participates in educational activities such asaccreditation of electrical engineering programs in institutes of higher learning. The IEEE logo is a diamond-shaped design which illustrates the right hand grip rule embedded inBenjamin Franklin's kite, and it was created at the time of the 1963 merger.[5]
IEEE has a dual complementary regional and technical structure – with organizational units based on geography (e.g., the IEEE Philadelphia Section, IEEE South Africa Section[1]) and technical focus (e.g., the IEEE Computer Society). It manages a separate organizational unit (IEEE-USA) which recommends policies and implements programs specifically intended to benefit the members, the profession and the public in the United States.
The IEEE includes 38 technical Societies, organized around specialized technical fields, with more than 300 local organizations that hold regular meetings.
The IEEE Standards Association is in charge of the standardization activities of the IEEE.
The IEEE History Center operates the IEEE Global History Network, which is the formal repository of IEEE operating unit histories, oral histories, first-hand histories, archival documents and IEEE Milestones. The History Center is annexed to Stevens University Hoboken, NJ.
Publications[edit]Main article: List of Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers publications
IEEE produces over 30% of the world's literature in the electrical and electronics engineering and computer science fields, publishing well over 100 peer-reviewed journals.[6]
The published content in these journals as well as the content from several hundred annual conferences sponsored by the IEEE are available in the IEEE online digital library, IEEE Xplore, for subscription-based access and individual publication purchases.[7]
In addition to journals and conference proceedings, the IEEE also publishes tutorials and the standards that are produced by its standardization committees.
Educational activities[edit]The IEEE provides learning opportunities within the engineering sciences, research, and technology. The goal of the IEEE education programs is to ensure the growth of skill and knowledge in the electricity-related technical professions and to foster individual commitment to continuing education among IEEE members, the engineering and scientific communities, and the general public.
IEEE offers educational opportunities such as IEEE e Learning Library,[8] the Education Partners Program,[9] Standards in Education[10] and Continuing Education Units(CEUs).[11]
IEEE eLearning Library is a collection of online educational courses designed for self-paced learning. Education Partners, exclusive for IEEE members, offers on-line degree programs, certifications and courses at a 10% discount. The Standards in Education website explains what standards are and the importance of developing and using them. The site includes tutorial modules and case illustrations to introduce the history of standards, the basic terminology, their applications and impact on products, as well as news related to standards, book reviews and links to other sites that contain information on standards. Currently, twenty-nine states in the United States require Professional Development Hours (PDH) to maintain a Professional Engineering license, encouraging engineers to seek Continuing Education Units (CEUs) for their participation in continuing education programs. CEUs readily translate into Professional Development Hours (PDHs), with 1 CEU being equivalent to 10 PDHs. Countries outside the United States, such as South Africa, similarly require continuing professional development (CPD) credits, and it is anticipated that IEEE Expert Now courses will feature in the CPD listing for South Africa.
IEEE also sponsors a website[12] designed to help young people better understand engineering, and how an engineering career can be made part of their future. Students of age 8–18, parents, and teachers can explore the site to prepare for an engineering career, ask experts engineering-related questions, play interactive games, explore curriculum links, and review lesson plans. This website also allows students to search for accredited engineering degree programs in Canada and the United States; visitors are able to search by state/province/territory, country, degree field, tuition ranges, room and board ranges, size of student body, and location (rural, suburban, or urban).
Through the Student Activities Committee [2], IEEE facilitates partnership between student activities and all other IEEE entities.
Standards and development process[edit]Main article: IEEE Standards Association
IEEE is one of the leading standards-making organizations in the world. IEEE performs its standards making and maintaining functions through the IEEE Standards Association(IEEE-SA). IEEE standards affect a wide range of industries including: power and energy, biomedical and healthcare, Information Technology (IT), telecommunications, transportation, nanotechnology, information assurance, and many more. In 2013, IEEE had over 900 active standards, with over 500 standards under development. One of the more notable IEEE standards is the IEEE 802 LAN/MAN group of standards which includes the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard and the IEEE 802.11 Wireless Networking standard.
Membership and member grades[edit]Most IEEE members are electrical and electronics engineers, but the organization's wide scope of interests has attracted people in other disciplines as well (e.g., computer science, software engineering, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, biology, physics, and mathematics).
An individual can join the IEEE as a student member, professional member, or associate member. In order to qualify for membership, the individual must fulfill certain academic or professional criteria and abide to the code of ethics and bylaws of the organization. There are several categories and levels of IEEE membership and affiliation:
Funds for the awards program, other than those provided by corporate sponsors for some awards, are administered by the IEEE Foundation.
Medals[edit]
Technical councils[edit]IEEE technical councils are collaborations of several IEEE societies on a broader knowledge area. There are currently seven technical councils:[15][17]
Technical committees[edit]To allow a quick response to new innovations, IEEE can also organize technical committees on top of their societies and technical councils. There are currently two such technical committees:[15]
Initially, the IEEE Foundation's role was to accept and administer donations for the IEEE Awards program, but donations increased beyond what was necessary for this purpose, and the scope was broadened. In addition to soliciting and administering unrestricted funds, the foundation also administers donor-designated funds supporting particular educational, humanitarian, historical preservation, and peer recognition programs of the IEEE.[18] As of the end of 2012, the foundation's total assets were nearly $37 million, split equally between unrestricted and donor-designated funds.[19]
Copyright policy[edit]The IEEE generally does not create its own research. It is a professional organization that coordinates journal peer-review activities and holds subject-specific conferences in which authors present their research. The IEEE then publishes the authors' papers in journals and other proceedings, and authors are required to transfer their copyright for works they submit for publication.[20][21]
Section 6.3.1 IEEE Copyright Policies – subsections 7 and 8 – states that "all authors…shall transfer to the IEEE in writing any copyright they hold for their individual papers", but that the IEEE will grant the authors permission to make copies and use the papers they originally authored, so long as such use is permitted by the Board of Directors. The guidelines for what the Board considers a "permitted" use are not entirely clear, although posting a copy on a personally controlled website is allowed. The author is also not allowed to change the work absent explicit approval from the organization. The IEEE justifies this practice in the first paragraph of that section, by stating that they will "serve and protect the interests of its authors and their employers".[20][21]
The IEEE places research papers and other publications such as IEEE standards behind a "paywall",[20] although the IEEE explicitly allows authors to make a copy of the papers that they authored freely available on their own website. As of September 2011, the IEEE also provides authors for most new journal papers with the option to pay to allow free download of their papers by the public from the IEEE publication website.[22]
IEEE publications have received a Green[23] rating from the SHERPA/RoMEO guide[24] for affirming "authors and/or their companies shall have the right to post their IEEE-copyrighted material on their own servers without permission" (IEEE Publication Policy 8.1.9.C[25]). This open access policy effectively allows authors, at their choice, to make their article openly available. Roughly 1/3 of the IEEE authors take this route[citation needed].
Some other professional associations use different copyright policies. For example, the USENIX association[20] requires that the author only give up the right to publish the paper elsewhere for 12 months (in addition to allowing authors to post copies of the paper on their own website during that time). The organization operates successfully even though all of its publications are freely available online.[20]
See also[edit]
External links[edit]Wikimedia Commons has media related to Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
Technical Societies of the IEEE
[hide]
Technical Councils of the IEEE
[show]
Telecommunications
[show]
IEEE standards
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"IEEE" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE, I-double-E).
This article relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (August 2014)IEEEFoundedJanuary 1, 1963TypeProfessional OrganizationFocusElectrical, Electronics, Communications, Computer Engineering, Computer Science and Information Technology[1]Location
OriginsMerger of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and theInstitute of Radio EngineersArea served
WorldwideMethodIndustry standards, Conferences, PublicationsMembers
430,000+Key people
Howard E. Michel, President and CEORevenue
US$413 millionWebsitewww.ieee.orgThe Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is a professional association with its corporate office in New York Cityand its operations center in Piscataway, New Jersey. It was formed in 1963 from the amalgamation of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and the Institute of Radio Engineers. Today it is the world's largest association of technical professionals with more than 400,000 members in chapters around the world. Its objectives are the educational and technical advancement of electrical and electronic engineering, telecommunications, computer engineering and allied disciplines.
Contents [hide]
- 1 IEEE
- 2 History
- 3 Organization
- 4 Publications
- 5 Educational activities
- 6 Standards and development process
- 7 Membership and member grades
- 8 Awards
- 9 Societies
- 10 Technical councils
- 11 Technical committees
- 12 Organizational units
- 13 IEEE Foundation
- 14 Copyright policy
- 15 See also
- 16 Notes and references
- 17 External links
IEEE[edit]IEEE stands for the "Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers". The association is chartered under this full legal name. IEEE's membership has long been composed of engineers and scientists. Allied professionals who are members include computer scientists, software developers, information technology professionals, physicists, and medical doctors, in addition to IEEE's electrical and electronics engineering core. For this reason the organization no longer goes by the full name, except on legal business documents, and is referred to simply as IEEE.
The IEEE is dedicated to advancing technological innovation and excellence. It has about 430,000 members in about 160 countries, slightly less than half of whom reside in theUnited States.[2][3]
The IEEE corporate office is on the 17th floor of 3 Park Avenue in New York City
History[edit]The major interests of the AIEE were wire communications (telegraphy and telephony) and light and power systems. The IRE concerned mostly radio engineering, and was formed from two smaller organizations, the Society of Wireless and Telegraph Engineers and the Wireless Institute. With the rise of electronics in the 1930s, electronics engineers usually became members of the IRE, but the applications of electron tube technology became so extensive that the technical boundaries differentiating the IRE and the AIEE became difficult to distinguish. After World War II, the two organizations became increasingly competitive, and in 1961, the leadership of both the IRE and the AIEE resolved to consolidate the two organizations. The two organizations formally merged as the IEEE on January 1, 1963.
Notable presidents of IEEE and its founding organizations include Elihu Thomson (AIEE, 1889–1890), Alexander Graham Bell (AIEE, 1891–1892), Charles Proteus Steinmetz (AIEE, 1901–1902), Lee De Forest (IRE, 1930), Frederick E. Terman (IRE, 1941), William R. Hewlett (IRE, 1954), Ernst Weber (IRE, 1959; IEEE, 1963), and Ivan Getting (IEEE, 1978).
Organization[edit]The IEEE is incorporated under the Not-for-Profit Corporation Law of the state of New York in the United States.[4] It was formed in 1963 by the merger of the Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE, founded 1912) and the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE, founded 1884).
IEEE's Constitution defines the purposes of the organization as "scientific and educational, directed toward the advancement of the theory and practice of Electrical, Electronics, Communications and Computer Engineering, as well as Computer Science, the allied branches of engineering and the related arts andsciences."[1] In pursuing these goals, the IEEE serves as a major publisher of scientific journals and organizer of conferences, workshops, and symposia (many of which have associated published proceedings). It is also a leading standards development organization for the development of industrial standards (having developed over 900 active industry technical standards) in a broad range of disciplines, including electric power and energy, biomedical technology and healthcare, information technology, information assurance, telecommunications, consumer electronics, transportation, aerospace, and nanotechnology. IEEE develops and participates in educational activities such asaccreditation of electrical engineering programs in institutes of higher learning. The IEEE logo is a diamond-shaped design which illustrates the right hand grip rule embedded inBenjamin Franklin's kite, and it was created at the time of the 1963 merger.[5]
IEEE has a dual complementary regional and technical structure – with organizational units based on geography (e.g., the IEEE Philadelphia Section, IEEE South Africa Section[1]) and technical focus (e.g., the IEEE Computer Society). It manages a separate organizational unit (IEEE-USA) which recommends policies and implements programs specifically intended to benefit the members, the profession and the public in the United States.
The IEEE includes 38 technical Societies, organized around specialized technical fields, with more than 300 local organizations that hold regular meetings.
The IEEE Standards Association is in charge of the standardization activities of the IEEE.
The IEEE History Center operates the IEEE Global History Network, which is the formal repository of IEEE operating unit histories, oral histories, first-hand histories, archival documents and IEEE Milestones. The History Center is annexed to Stevens University Hoboken, NJ.
Publications[edit]Main article: List of Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers publications
IEEE produces over 30% of the world's literature in the electrical and electronics engineering and computer science fields, publishing well over 100 peer-reviewed journals.[6]
The published content in these journals as well as the content from several hundred annual conferences sponsored by the IEEE are available in the IEEE online digital library, IEEE Xplore, for subscription-based access and individual publication purchases.[7]
In addition to journals and conference proceedings, the IEEE also publishes tutorials and the standards that are produced by its standardization committees.
Educational activities[edit]The IEEE provides learning opportunities within the engineering sciences, research, and technology. The goal of the IEEE education programs is to ensure the growth of skill and knowledge in the electricity-related technical professions and to foster individual commitment to continuing education among IEEE members, the engineering and scientific communities, and the general public.
IEEE offers educational opportunities such as IEEE e Learning Library,[8] the Education Partners Program,[9] Standards in Education[10] and Continuing Education Units(CEUs).[11]
IEEE eLearning Library is a collection of online educational courses designed for self-paced learning. Education Partners, exclusive for IEEE members, offers on-line degree programs, certifications and courses at a 10% discount. The Standards in Education website explains what standards are and the importance of developing and using them. The site includes tutorial modules and case illustrations to introduce the history of standards, the basic terminology, their applications and impact on products, as well as news related to standards, book reviews and links to other sites that contain information on standards. Currently, twenty-nine states in the United States require Professional Development Hours (PDH) to maintain a Professional Engineering license, encouraging engineers to seek Continuing Education Units (CEUs) for their participation in continuing education programs. CEUs readily translate into Professional Development Hours (PDHs), with 1 CEU being equivalent to 10 PDHs. Countries outside the United States, such as South Africa, similarly require continuing professional development (CPD) credits, and it is anticipated that IEEE Expert Now courses will feature in the CPD listing for South Africa.
IEEE also sponsors a website[12] designed to help young people better understand engineering, and how an engineering career can be made part of their future. Students of age 8–18, parents, and teachers can explore the site to prepare for an engineering career, ask experts engineering-related questions, play interactive games, explore curriculum links, and review lesson plans. This website also allows students to search for accredited engineering degree programs in Canada and the United States; visitors are able to search by state/province/territory, country, degree field, tuition ranges, room and board ranges, size of student body, and location (rural, suburban, or urban).
Through the Student Activities Committee [2], IEEE facilitates partnership between student activities and all other IEEE entities.
Standards and development process[edit]Main article: IEEE Standards Association
IEEE is one of the leading standards-making organizations in the world. IEEE performs its standards making and maintaining functions through the IEEE Standards Association(IEEE-SA). IEEE standards affect a wide range of industries including: power and energy, biomedical and healthcare, Information Technology (IT), telecommunications, transportation, nanotechnology, information assurance, and many more. In 2013, IEEE had over 900 active standards, with over 500 standards under development. One of the more notable IEEE standards is the IEEE 802 LAN/MAN group of standards which includes the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard and the IEEE 802.11 Wireless Networking standard.
Membership and member grades[edit]Most IEEE members are electrical and electronics engineers, but the organization's wide scope of interests has attracted people in other disciplines as well (e.g., computer science, software engineering, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, biology, physics, and mathematics).
An individual can join the IEEE as a student member, professional member, or associate member. In order to qualify for membership, the individual must fulfill certain academic or professional criteria and abide to the code of ethics and bylaws of the organization. There are several categories and levels of IEEE membership and affiliation:
- Student Members: Student membership is available for a reduced fee to those who are enrolled in an accredited institution of higher education as undergraduate or graduate students in technology or engineering.
- Members: Ordinary or professional Membership requires that the individual have graduated from a technology or engineering program of an appropriately accredited institution of higher education or have demonstrated professional competence in technology or engineering through at least six years of professional work experience. An associate membership is available to an individual whose area of expertise falls outside the scope of the IEEE or who does not, at the time of enrollment, meet all the requirements for full membership. Students and Associates have all the privileges of members, except the right to vote and hold certain offices.
- Society Affiliates: Some IEEE Societies also allow a person who is not an IEEE member to become a Society Affiliate of a particular Society within the IEEE, which allows a limited form of participation in the work of a particular IEEE Society.
- Senior Members: Upon meeting certain requirements, a professional member can apply for Senior Membership, which is the highest level of recognition that a professional member can directly apply for. Applicants for Senior Member must have at least three letters of recommendation from Senior, Fellow, or Honorary members and fulfill other rigorous requirements of education, achievement, remarkable contribution, and experience in the field. The Senior Members are a selected group, and certain IEEE officer positions are available only to Senior (and Fellow) Members. Senior Membership is also one of the requirements for those who are nominated and elevated to the grade IEEE Fellow, a distinctive honor.
- Fellow Members: The Fellow grade of membership is the highest level of membership, and cannot be applied for directly by the member – instead the candidate must be nominated by others. This grade of membership is conferred by the IEEE Board of Directors in recognition of a high level of demonstrated extraordinary accomplishment.
- Honorary Members: Individuals who are not IEEE members but have demonstrated exceptional contributions, such as being a recipient of an IEEE Medal of Honor, may receive Honorary Membership from the IEEE Board of Directors.
- Life Members and Life Fellows: Members who have reached the age of 65 and whose number of years of membership plus their age in years adds up to at least 100 are recognized as Life Members – and, in the case of Fellow members, as Life Fellows.
Funds for the awards program, other than those provided by corporate sponsors for some awards, are administered by the IEEE Foundation.
Medals[edit]
- IEEE Medal of Honor
- IEEE Edison Medal
- IEEE Founders Medal (for leadership, planning, and administration)
- IEEE James H. Mulligan, Jr. Education Medal
- IEEE Alexander Graham Bell Medal (for communications engineering)
- IEEE Simon Ramo Medal (for systems engineering)
- IEEE Medal for Engineering Excellence
- IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies
- IEEE Medal in Power Engineering
- IEEE Richard W. Hamming Medal (for information technology)
- IEEE Heinrich Hertz Medal (for electromagnetics)
- IEEE Jun-ichi Nishizawa Medal for materials and device sciences
- IEEE John von Neumann Medal (for computer-related technology)
- IEEE Jack S. Kilby Signal Processing Medal
- IEEE Dennis J. Picard Medal for Radar Technologies and Applications
- IEEE Robert N. Noyce Medal (for microelectronics)
- IEEE Medal for Innovations in Healthcare Technology
- IEEE/RSE Wolfson James Clerk Maxwell Award
- IEEE Centennial Medal
- IEEE Biomedical Engineering Award
- IEEE Cledo Brunetti Award (for nanotechnology and miniaturization)
- IEEE Claude E. Shannon Award in Information Theory
- IEEE Components, Packaging, and Manufacturing Technologies Award
- IEEE Control Systems Award
- IEEE Electromagnetics Award
- IEEE James L. Flanagan Speech and Audio Processing Award
- IEEE Andrew S. Grove Award (for solid-state devices)
- IEEE Herman Halperin Electric Transmission and Distribution Award
- IEEE Masaru Ibuka Consumer Electronics Award
- IEEE Internet Award
- IEEE Reynold B. Johnson Data Storage Device Technology Award
- IEEE Reynold B. Johnson Information Storage Systems Award
- IEEE Richard Harold Kaufmann Award (for industrial systems engineering)
- IEEE Joseph F. Keithley Award in Instrumentation and Measurement
- IEEE Gustav Robert Kirchhoff Award (for electronic circuits and systems)
- IEEE Leon K. Kirchmayer Graduate Teaching Award
- IEEE Koji Kobayashi Computers and Communications Award
- IEEE William E. Newell Power Electronics Award
- IEEE Daniel E. Noble Award (for emerging technologies)
- IEEE Donald O. Pederson Award in Solid-State Circuits
- IEEE Frederik Philips Award (for management of research and development)
- IEEE Photonics Award
- IEEE Emanuel R. Piore Award (for information processing systems in computer science)
- IEEE Judith A. Resnik Award (for space engineering)
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- IEEE Life Members Graduate Study Fellowship in Electrical Engineering was established by the IEEE in 2000. The fellowship is awarded annually to a first year, full-time graduate student obtaining their masters for work in the area of electrical engineering, at an engineering school/program of recognized standing worldwide.[13]
- IEEE Charles LeGeyt Fortescue Graduate Scholarship was established by the IRE in 1939 to commemorate Charles Legeyt Fortescue's contributions to electrical engineering. The scholarship is awarded for one year of full-time graduate work obtaining their masters in electrical engineering an ANE engineering school of recognized standing in the United States.[14]
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Technical councils[edit]IEEE technical councils are collaborations of several IEEE societies on a broader knowledge area. There are currently seven technical councils:[15][17]
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Technical committees[edit]To allow a quick response to new innovations, IEEE can also organize technical committees on top of their societies and technical councils. There are currently two such technical committees:[15]
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- IEEE Technical Committee on RFID (CRFID)
Initially, the IEEE Foundation's role was to accept and administer donations for the IEEE Awards program, but donations increased beyond what was necessary for this purpose, and the scope was broadened. In addition to soliciting and administering unrestricted funds, the foundation also administers donor-designated funds supporting particular educational, humanitarian, historical preservation, and peer recognition programs of the IEEE.[18] As of the end of 2012, the foundation's total assets were nearly $37 million, split equally between unrestricted and donor-designated funds.[19]
Copyright policy[edit]The IEEE generally does not create its own research. It is a professional organization that coordinates journal peer-review activities and holds subject-specific conferences in which authors present their research. The IEEE then publishes the authors' papers in journals and other proceedings, and authors are required to transfer their copyright for works they submit for publication.[20][21]
Section 6.3.1 IEEE Copyright Policies – subsections 7 and 8 – states that "all authors…shall transfer to the IEEE in writing any copyright they hold for their individual papers", but that the IEEE will grant the authors permission to make copies and use the papers they originally authored, so long as such use is permitted by the Board of Directors. The guidelines for what the Board considers a "permitted" use are not entirely clear, although posting a copy on a personally controlled website is allowed. The author is also not allowed to change the work absent explicit approval from the organization. The IEEE justifies this practice in the first paragraph of that section, by stating that they will "serve and protect the interests of its authors and their employers".[20][21]
The IEEE places research papers and other publications such as IEEE standards behind a "paywall",[20] although the IEEE explicitly allows authors to make a copy of the papers that they authored freely available on their own website. As of September 2011, the IEEE also provides authors for most new journal papers with the option to pay to allow free download of their papers by the public from the IEEE publication website.[22]
IEEE publications have received a Green[23] rating from the SHERPA/RoMEO guide[24] for affirming "authors and/or their companies shall have the right to post their IEEE-copyrighted material on their own servers without permission" (IEEE Publication Policy 8.1.9.C[25]). This open access policy effectively allows authors, at their choice, to make their article openly available. Roughly 1/3 of the IEEE authors take this route[citation needed].
Some other professional associations use different copyright policies. For example, the USENIX association[20] requires that the author only give up the right to publish the paper elsewhere for 12 months (in addition to allowing authors to post copies of the paper on their own website during that time). The organization operates successfully even though all of its publications are freely available online.[20]
See also[edit]
- Certified Software Development Professional (CSDP) Program of the IEEE Computer Society
- Eta Kappa Nu, the electrical and computer engineering honor society of the IEEE
- Institution of Engineering and Technology
- Association of Scientists, Developers and Faculties
- IEEE's sanctions against Iranian scientists
- How many SCIgen papers in Computer Science?
- IEEE Cloud Computing
- ^ Jump up to:a b "IEEE Technical Activities Board Operations Manual". IEEE. RetrievedDecember 7, 2010., section 1.3 Technical activities objectives
- Jump up^ "IEEE at a Glance > IEEE Quick Facts". IEEE. December 31, 2010. RetrievedAugust 14, 2013.
- Jump up^ "IEEE 2013 Annual Report". IEEE. March 2014. Retrieved March 24, 2014.
- Jump up^ "IEEE Technical Activities Board Operations Manual". IEEE. Retrieved November 10,2010., section 1.1 IEEE Incorporation
- Jump up^ "IEEE – Master Brand and Logos". www.ieee.org. Retrieved 2011-01-28.
- Jump up^ About IEEE
- Jump up^ IEEE's online digital library
- Jump up^ IEEE – IEEE Expert Now
- Jump up^ IEEE – IEEE Education Partners Program
- Jump up^ IEEE – The IEEE Standards Education pages have moved
- Jump up^ IEEE – IEEE Continuing Education Units
- Jump up^ Welcome to TryEngineering.org
- Jump up^ IEEE Life Member Graduate Study Fellowship. Retrieved on 2010-01-23.
- Jump up^ Charles LeGeyt Fortescue Graduate Scholarship. Retrieved on 2010-01-23.
- ^ Jump up to:a b c "IEEE Societies & Communities". IEEE. Retrieved November 7, 2010.
- Jump up^ "IEEE Society Memberships". IEEE. Retrieved November 7, 2010.
- Jump up^ "IEEE Technical Councils". IEEE. Retrieved November 8, 2010.
- ^ Jump up to:a b IEEE Foundation Home page
- Jump up^ IEEE Foundation Overview page
- ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Johns, Chris (March 12, 2011). "Matt Blaze’s criticism of the ACM and the IEEE". Washington College of Law Intellectual Property Brief (American University). Retrieved 2011-04-17. This section uses content available under the CC-BY-SA 3.0 License.
- The American University Washington College of Law Intellectual Property Brief is licensed by Dan Rosenthal under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 United States License and hosted by Dan Rosenthal.
- ^ Jump up to:a b "6.3.1 IEEE Copyright Policies" (Available online). IEEE. 2011. Retrieved2011-04-17.
- Jump up^ Davis, Amanda, Most IEEE Journals are now Open Access, The Institute, October 7, 2011.
- Jump up^ Sherpa Romeo color code
- Jump up^ Sherpa Romeo site
- Jump up^ IEEE Publication Policy 8.1.9.C
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Top 10 Jobs in Information TechnologyVeronica C. | July 23, 2013
Information technology – often shortened to just IT – is a buzz phrase you’ve probably heard ad nauseum if you happen to work with IT personnel or went to school for anything related to computers. IT workers are highly specialized in their field, which is probably why they’re often just called “IT nerds.” They like what they do and understand it inside and out. IT workers are also essential to just about every modern business model. If a company relies on phones and emails, chances are that there’s an IT professional behind it all making sure the cogs in the machine function properly.
So what’s the real benefit of being the behind-the-scenes technological lifeblood of a company? Excellent pay is your reward, more often than not. As the economy finds its footing and more jobs open up, expect the requirements of IT professionals to be vast as ever. Curious what you might like to do and how much someone will pay you to do it? Consider these 10 leading fields and their median salary ranges.
1. IT consultant
Ranking number 13 on CNN’s most recent Best Jobs in America list, the work of being an IT consultant is as vague as it sounds. In this position, your job is to evaluate the systems and do the research that no one else entirely understands. As CNN puts it, everyone from local startups to the Fortune 500 companies need IT consultants to help them figure out the cheapest and fastest ways to run computers better.
Education: A bachelor’s degree in computer science definitely helps, like most positions on this list. CNN also recommends that an IT consultant specialize in a niche category to help focus on the kind of experience he or she gets.
Salary: $96,400, according to CNN.
2. Cloud architect
You’ve heard of cloud computing of course. Although that storage space existing in the ether can’t be touched literally, it still needs to be organized and given an architecture. That’s what this job is for.
Education: A bachelor’s degree.
Salary: $112,000, making it one of the highest paying IT jobs.
3. Computer forensic investigator
Computer crime detectives – The Best Schools reports that computer forensic investigators search for, identify and evaluate information from computer systems, often for trial evidence.
Education: TBS says that you’ll need a degree in computer forensics, information security or cyber security. Certification from a computer examiner board also helps.
Salary: $64,000 according to TBS.
4. Health IT specialist
Health IT is a blossoming field, especially with major changes going on in healthcare due to the Affordable Care Act and the gradual transition to electronic health records. Health IT specialists will mix computer knowledge will record-keeping skills, but specialties in medical coding, billing and cancer registry are also in demand, according to TBS.
Education: While some health IT jobs require only an associate degree and/or certification, supervisory technician positions call for bachelor’s and master’s degrees.
Salary: $45,000, according to TBS.
5. Mobile application developer
Chances are that you and most people you know have smartphones and/or tablet computers. According to CareerRealism, the use of mobile tech is predicted to exceed personal computers at some time in 2013, so businesses are more heavily relying on IT professionals with experience in this field than ever before. Using basic coding languages, developers will create programs for future iOS and Android devices.
Education: A bachelor’s in software engineering, computer science, mobile computer or related fields, according to TBS.
Salary: $90,000 with high growth outlook, reports TBS.
6. Web developer
Web developers are jacks of all trades. They create web pages, web applications and web content, but their skill set requires them to have excellent understanding of what makes a good operating system, what the average surfer finds visually stimulating and how to optimize sites for mobile tech, among numerous other skills. They also need proficiency in Web languages, like HTML and Javascript.
Education: TBS reports that the road to web design can be learned through accredited degree programs, but many web developers are self taught and use their “portfolios” to win positions.
Salary: $90,000, according to TBS.
7. Software engineer
Like video games? Want to design the next Facebook? This is for you. Software engineers are behind all the programs we run on our mobile devices and personal computers – and there is a very wide range of niche fields you can work in.
Education: According to TBS, a bachelor’s degree in software engineering or a related field is best.
Salary: $89,000 according to TBS.
8. Information technology vendor manager
Slightly more hands-off compared to some tech positions, vendor managers oversee supply when it comes to software and hardware. This can mean anything from Microsoft’s latest word processor to health IT programs for hospitals.
Education: Computer science degrees are helpful, but a deep understanding of business or even an MBA could clinch a job.
Salary: $88,000, reports TBS.
9. Geospatial professionals
Sound confusing? Geographic information systems are complicated, but exciting and getting moreso every day. GIS tech uses geographic data to evaluate and communicate trends and patterns in visually stylish and comprehensive ways, according to CareerRealism.
Education: Certificate programs and degrees both improve job outlook.
Salary: Up to $84,000, according to CareerRealism.
10. Data Modeler
Another position that translates poorly without jargon, these IT professionals create data designs and define relationships between data fields, according to TBS. Since any company’s data is vital, it’s modeling needs to work perfectly – a more complex task as reliance on computers grows.
Education: Bachelor’s degree in computer science, mathematics or IT – plus on-the-job experience, says TBS.
Salary: A hefty $103,000, according to TBS.
At Experience.com, our mission is to provide the latest marketplace insights for students, recent college graduates and industry veterans. With expert guidance and breaking news about available premium entry level jobs and paidinternships, your career starts here.
Category: Career News, Careers, Internships, Interships, Jobs
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- inShare45
Information technology – often shortened to just IT – is a buzz phrase you’ve probably heard ad nauseum if you happen to work with IT personnel or went to school for anything related to computers. IT workers are highly specialized in their field, which is probably why they’re often just called “IT nerds.” They like what they do and understand it inside and out. IT workers are also essential to just about every modern business model. If a company relies on phones and emails, chances are that there’s an IT professional behind it all making sure the cogs in the machine function properly.
So what’s the real benefit of being the behind-the-scenes technological lifeblood of a company? Excellent pay is your reward, more often than not. As the economy finds its footing and more jobs open up, expect the requirements of IT professionals to be vast as ever. Curious what you might like to do and how much someone will pay you to do it? Consider these 10 leading fields and their median salary ranges.
1. IT consultant
Ranking number 13 on CNN’s most recent Best Jobs in America list, the work of being an IT consultant is as vague as it sounds. In this position, your job is to evaluate the systems and do the research that no one else entirely understands. As CNN puts it, everyone from local startups to the Fortune 500 companies need IT consultants to help them figure out the cheapest and fastest ways to run computers better.
Education: A bachelor’s degree in computer science definitely helps, like most positions on this list. CNN also recommends that an IT consultant specialize in a niche category to help focus on the kind of experience he or she gets.
Salary: $96,400, according to CNN.
2. Cloud architect
You’ve heard of cloud computing of course. Although that storage space existing in the ether can’t be touched literally, it still needs to be organized and given an architecture. That’s what this job is for.
Education: A bachelor’s degree.
Salary: $112,000, making it one of the highest paying IT jobs.
3. Computer forensic investigator
Computer crime detectives – The Best Schools reports that computer forensic investigators search for, identify and evaluate information from computer systems, often for trial evidence.
Education: TBS says that you’ll need a degree in computer forensics, information security or cyber security. Certification from a computer examiner board also helps.
Salary: $64,000 according to TBS.
4. Health IT specialist
Health IT is a blossoming field, especially with major changes going on in healthcare due to the Affordable Care Act and the gradual transition to electronic health records. Health IT specialists will mix computer knowledge will record-keeping skills, but specialties in medical coding, billing and cancer registry are also in demand, according to TBS.
Education: While some health IT jobs require only an associate degree and/or certification, supervisory technician positions call for bachelor’s and master’s degrees.
Salary: $45,000, according to TBS.
5. Mobile application developer
Chances are that you and most people you know have smartphones and/or tablet computers. According to CareerRealism, the use of mobile tech is predicted to exceed personal computers at some time in 2013, so businesses are more heavily relying on IT professionals with experience in this field than ever before. Using basic coding languages, developers will create programs for future iOS and Android devices.
Education: A bachelor’s in software engineering, computer science, mobile computer or related fields, according to TBS.
Salary: $90,000 with high growth outlook, reports TBS.
6. Web developer
Web developers are jacks of all trades. They create web pages, web applications and web content, but their skill set requires them to have excellent understanding of what makes a good operating system, what the average surfer finds visually stimulating and how to optimize sites for mobile tech, among numerous other skills. They also need proficiency in Web languages, like HTML and Javascript.
Education: TBS reports that the road to web design can be learned through accredited degree programs, but many web developers are self taught and use their “portfolios” to win positions.
Salary: $90,000, according to TBS.
7. Software engineer
Like video games? Want to design the next Facebook? This is for you. Software engineers are behind all the programs we run on our mobile devices and personal computers – and there is a very wide range of niche fields you can work in.
Education: According to TBS, a bachelor’s degree in software engineering or a related field is best.
Salary: $89,000 according to TBS.
8. Information technology vendor manager
Slightly more hands-off compared to some tech positions, vendor managers oversee supply when it comes to software and hardware. This can mean anything from Microsoft’s latest word processor to health IT programs for hospitals.
Education: Computer science degrees are helpful, but a deep understanding of business or even an MBA could clinch a job.
Salary: $88,000, reports TBS.
9. Geospatial professionals
Sound confusing? Geographic information systems are complicated, but exciting and getting moreso every day. GIS tech uses geographic data to evaluate and communicate trends and patterns in visually stylish and comprehensive ways, according to CareerRealism.
Education: Certificate programs and degrees both improve job outlook.
Salary: Up to $84,000, according to CareerRealism.
10. Data Modeler
Another position that translates poorly without jargon, these IT professionals create data designs and define relationships between data fields, according to TBS. Since any company’s data is vital, it’s modeling needs to work perfectly – a more complex task as reliance on computers grows.
Education: Bachelor’s degree in computer science, mathematics or IT – plus on-the-job experience, says TBS.
Salary: A hefty $103,000, according to TBS.
At Experience.com, our mission is to provide the latest marketplace insights for students, recent college graduates and industry veterans. With expert guidance and breaking news about available premium entry level jobs and paidinternships, your career starts here.
Category: Career News, Careers, Internships, Interships, Jobs
Comments (0)Trackback URL | Comments RSS Feed
There are no comments yet. Why not be the first to speak your mind.
Comments are closed.
HOW TO PLAN A CAREER IN IT
By Cindi Miller
What is the first step in a career in Information Technology?
A recent interview with Sean Nihalani, CEO of HiTek Solutions, revealed an optimistic outlook for the future of the IT profession, as well as practical advice on how to get started and stay ahead. HiTek Solutions specializes in IT training and tech support, as well as web development and client servicing.
What types of skills are necessary for an IT career?
Analytical skills and technical aptitude are the most important skills. What does the customer require? Age is not a barrier, young or old, and you don't have to be good at math, and you don't need 4 years in college! You do need to be able to problem solve and enjoy new challenges.
Are jobs in IT team-oriented or individualistic?
Actually, both. You can work from home or you can be in an office providing technical support or maybe have a management position. There's great flexibility in IT.
What are the growth prospects of the IT industry?
The growth is exponential! There is a shortage of people, so companies recruit from classes and are even willing to train you. This is great for people making a career change.
What types of companies are looking for IT professionals?
All types - everybody uses computers. Small businesses need IT expertise, while many big companies have in-house IT departments, or outsource to an IT service company. Accounting firms, law firms, real estate companies, escrow companies, retail stores - even a chain of video stores has 4 or 5 computers. Computer networks are everywhere.
What specialties are there within the profession?
No matter what background you have, PC knowledge is always an asset. It will allow you to perform better even if you are not working in the technology field. Lawyers, accountants, anyone can benefit. Knowledge of computers has become essentially important for hardware and software engineers too.
What kinds of job titles apply to IT?
At an entry level, "P.C. Technician" or "Help Desk Support" is typical. At mid-level, the job titles include " System Analyst", "Network Engineer", " Internet Systems Engineer" "Network Administrator or IT Manager", and a variety of MIS (Management Information System) titles. The company itself defines title. Even technical sales professionals or management personnel can use IT knowledge.
What kind of training is needed to start?
The foundation begins with training as a PC Systems Specialist and Network Systems Specialist. After that, there are opportunities to focus in specialties such as Microsoft Windows 2000 Networks , Cisco Routers, Data Communications, Web Architect, e-Commerce, Databases , Programming and so on. With better foundation, individuals can do a better job in their field of specialty.
How long does it take to prepare?
Typically, for entry level, training will take six to eight months, at 10-12 hours per week. This translates to one or two nights per week, and one Saturday or Sunday a week.
How should someone get trained?
I think an instructor-led program is the most effective. The human interaction builds confidence, and more confidence leads to more success! By not being isolated, the student is able to learn more, ask questions, and get immediate feedback. The classroom has many more computers, and is able to simulate more real-life situations than a student studying at home alone. Also, a university class has more recognition, which is an asset. There's a great demand for IT professionals who have certification, both from a university and vendor-specific.
What about self-paced instruction?
Unless you have facilities at work, don't do self-paced. There are so many computer programs to install, configure, trouble-shoot, etc. Both the on-line courses and books out there are fine for supplementing an instructor-led program, but you'll get a higher level of learning in the classroom.
What kind of training is needed on an ongoing basis?
Usually the job dictates what is needed. What the customer wants leads to change, and change creates jobs and opportunities! You should keep up with the newer technologies since this is an ever-changing field. Always update yourself.
What's the salary outlook in IT?
Let me tell you a story… A 19-year-old pizza delivery boy decided to take our IT courses. He was very determined and worked hard. He got his first IT job at $44 thousand per year, and was making $80 thousand after six months! IT changes people's lives ! The average IT salary in Southern California is $57,000 per year. With two years experience, that number goes up to $70 to $80 thousand per year. Four years experience typically translates to $90 to $120 thousand per year, depending on the individual. IT managers average $140 thousand per year. Of course, it depends on the individual's capabilities and on the employer.
Here are some of the characteristics needed to be successful in the IT field.
Determination and self-motivation
Ability to adapt to change
Customer oriented
Team player
Technical and analytical/reasoning aptitude
As a computer user, you enjoy the computer
Enjoy creativity
Any final words for those interested in Information Technology?
Whether you want to make a mid-career change, or are just starting out, there are so many job opportunities! Everyone can find his or her niche doing what they like. Everyday, you learn something new in this exciting field.
By Cindi Miller
What is the first step in a career in Information Technology?
A recent interview with Sean Nihalani, CEO of HiTek Solutions, revealed an optimistic outlook for the future of the IT profession, as well as practical advice on how to get started and stay ahead. HiTek Solutions specializes in IT training and tech support, as well as web development and client servicing.
What types of skills are necessary for an IT career?
Analytical skills and technical aptitude are the most important skills. What does the customer require? Age is not a barrier, young or old, and you don't have to be good at math, and you don't need 4 years in college! You do need to be able to problem solve and enjoy new challenges.
Are jobs in IT team-oriented or individualistic?
Actually, both. You can work from home or you can be in an office providing technical support or maybe have a management position. There's great flexibility in IT.
What are the growth prospects of the IT industry?
The growth is exponential! There is a shortage of people, so companies recruit from classes and are even willing to train you. This is great for people making a career change.
What types of companies are looking for IT professionals?
All types - everybody uses computers. Small businesses need IT expertise, while many big companies have in-house IT departments, or outsource to an IT service company. Accounting firms, law firms, real estate companies, escrow companies, retail stores - even a chain of video stores has 4 or 5 computers. Computer networks are everywhere.
What specialties are there within the profession?
No matter what background you have, PC knowledge is always an asset. It will allow you to perform better even if you are not working in the technology field. Lawyers, accountants, anyone can benefit. Knowledge of computers has become essentially important for hardware and software engineers too.
What kinds of job titles apply to IT?
At an entry level, "P.C. Technician" or "Help Desk Support" is typical. At mid-level, the job titles include " System Analyst", "Network Engineer", " Internet Systems Engineer" "Network Administrator or IT Manager", and a variety of MIS (Management Information System) titles. The company itself defines title. Even technical sales professionals or management personnel can use IT knowledge.
What kind of training is needed to start?
The foundation begins with training as a PC Systems Specialist and Network Systems Specialist. After that, there are opportunities to focus in specialties such as Microsoft Windows 2000 Networks , Cisco Routers, Data Communications, Web Architect, e-Commerce, Databases , Programming and so on. With better foundation, individuals can do a better job in their field of specialty.
How long does it take to prepare?
Typically, for entry level, training will take six to eight months, at 10-12 hours per week. This translates to one or two nights per week, and one Saturday or Sunday a week.
How should someone get trained?
I think an instructor-led program is the most effective. The human interaction builds confidence, and more confidence leads to more success! By not being isolated, the student is able to learn more, ask questions, and get immediate feedback. The classroom has many more computers, and is able to simulate more real-life situations than a student studying at home alone. Also, a university class has more recognition, which is an asset. There's a great demand for IT professionals who have certification, both from a university and vendor-specific.
What about self-paced instruction?
Unless you have facilities at work, don't do self-paced. There are so many computer programs to install, configure, trouble-shoot, etc. Both the on-line courses and books out there are fine for supplementing an instructor-led program, but you'll get a higher level of learning in the classroom.
What kind of training is needed on an ongoing basis?
Usually the job dictates what is needed. What the customer wants leads to change, and change creates jobs and opportunities! You should keep up with the newer technologies since this is an ever-changing field. Always update yourself.
What's the salary outlook in IT?
Let me tell you a story… A 19-year-old pizza delivery boy decided to take our IT courses. He was very determined and worked hard. He got his first IT job at $44 thousand per year, and was making $80 thousand after six months! IT changes people's lives ! The average IT salary in Southern California is $57,000 per year. With two years experience, that number goes up to $70 to $80 thousand per year. Four years experience typically translates to $90 to $120 thousand per year, depending on the individual. IT managers average $140 thousand per year. Of course, it depends on the individual's capabilities and on the employer.
Here are some of the characteristics needed to be successful in the IT field.
Determination and self-motivation
Ability to adapt to change
Customer oriented
Team player
Technical and analytical/reasoning aptitude
As a computer user, you enjoy the computer
Enjoy creativity
Any final words for those interested in Information Technology?
Whether you want to make a mid-career change, or are just starting out, there are so many job opportunities! Everyone can find his or her niche doing what they like. Everyday, you learn something new in this exciting field.
Information technology in IndiaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
[hide]This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page.This article needs additional citations for verification. (January 2013)This article may require copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling. (November 2013)Information technology in India is an industry consisting of two major components: IT services and business process outsourcing (BPO). The sector has increased its contribution to India's GDP from 1.2% in 1998 to 7.5% in 2012.[1] According to NASSCOM, the sector aggregated revenues of US$100 billion in 2012, where export revenue stood at US$69.1 billion and domestic at US$31.7 billion, growing by over 9%.[1]
Information technology is playing an important role in India today and has transformed India's image from a slow moving bureaucratic economy to a land of innovative entrepreneurs.
The IT sector in India is generating 2.5 million direct employment. India is now one of the biggest IT capitals of the modern world and all the major players in the world IT sector are present in the country.[2]
The major cities that account for about nearly 90% of the sector's exports are Bengaluru, Jammu & Kashmir, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Chennai , Trivandrum, Noida, Mumbai andPune. Bengaluru is considered to be the Silicon Valley of India because it is the leading IT exporter.[3][4] Exports dominate the industry and constitute about 77% of the total industry revenue. However, the domestic market is also significant with a robust revenue growth.[1] The industry’s share of total Indian exports (merchandise plus services) increased from less than 4% in FY1998 to about 25% in FY2012. According to Gartner, the "Top Five Indian IT Services Providers" are Tata Consultancy Services, Infosys,Cognizant, Wipro , and HCL Technologies.[5]
Regulated VSAT links became visible in 1994.[6] Desai (2006) describes the steps taken to relax regulations on linking in 1991:
In 1991 the Department of Electronics broke this impasse, creating a corporation called Software Technology Parks of India (STPI) that, being owned by the government, could provide VSAT communications without breaching its monopoly. STPI set up software technology parks in different cities, each of which provided satellite links to be used by firms; the local link was a wireless radio link. In 1993 the government began to allow individual companies their own dedicated links, which allowed work done in India to be transmitted abroad directly. Indian firms soon convinced their American customers that a satellite link was as reliable as a team of programmers working in the clients’ office.
Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited (VSNL) introduced Gateway Electronic Mail Service in 1991, the 64 kbit/s leased line service in 1992, and commercial Internet access on a visible scale in 1992. Election results were displayed via National Informatics Centre's NICNET.
The Indian economy underwent economic reforms in 1991, leading to a new era of globalization and international economic integration. Economic growth of over 6% annually was seen during 1993-2002. The economic reforms were driven in part by significant the internet usage in the country. The new administration under Atal Bihari Vajpayee 1999 govt pm—which placed the development of Information Technology among its top five priorities— formed the Indian National Task Force on Information Technology and Software Development.
Wolcott & Goodman (2003) report on the role of the Indian National Task Force on Information Technology and Software Development:
Within 90 days of its establishment, the Task Force produced an extensive background report on the state of technology in India and an IT Action Plan with 108 recommendations. The Task Force could act quickly because it built upon the experience and frustrations of state governments, central government agencies, universities, and the software industry. Much of what it proposed was also consistent with the thinking and recommendations of international bodies like the World Trade Organization (WTO), International Telecommunications Union(ITU), and World Bank. In addition, the Task Force incorporated the experiences of Singapore and other nations, which implemented similar programs. It was less a task of invention than of sparking action on a consensus that had already evolved within the networking community and government.
"The New Telecommunications Policy, 1999" (NTP 1999) helped further liberalize India's telecommunications sector. The Information Technology Act 2000 created legal procedures for electronic transactions and e-commerce.
Throughout the 1990s, another wave of Indian professionals entered the United States. The number of Indian Americans reached 1.7 million by 2000. This immigration consisted largely of highly educated technologically proficient workers. Within the United States, Indians fared well in science, engineering, and management. Graduates from the Indian Institutes of Technology (IIT) became known for their technical skills. The success of Information Technology in India not only had economic repercussions but also had far-reaching political consequences. India's reputation both as a source and a destination for skilled workforce helped it improve its relations with a number of world economies. The relationship between economy and technology—valued in the western world—facilitated the growth of an entrepreneurial class of immigrant Indians, which further helped aid in promoting technology-driven growth.
Contents
- 1 Recent development
- 2 Major IT Hubs
- 3 Employment
- 4 Future Outlook[13]
- 5 See also
- 6 References
- 7 Further reading
- 8 External links
Recent development[edit]The economic effect of the technologically inclined services sector in India—accounting for 40% of the country's GDP and 30% of export earnings as of 2006, while employing only 25% of its workforce—is summarized by Sharma (2006): "Today, Bangalore is known as the Silicon Valley of India and contributes 33% of Indian IT Exports. India's second and third largest software companies are headquartered in Bangalore, as are many of the global SEI-CMM Level 100 Companies."[citation needed] Numerous IT companies are based in Mumbai such as TCS (among India's first and largest), Reliance, Patni, LnT Infotech, Myzornis Corporation and i-Flex.
Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum), the capital of Kerala state, is the foremost among the Tier II cities that is rapidly growing in terms of IT infrastructure. As the software hub of Kerala, more than 80% of the state's software exports are from here.[7] Major campuses and headquarters of companies such as Infosys, Oracle Corporation, IBS Software Services and UST Global are located in the city. India's biggest IT company Tata Consultancy Services is building the country's largest IT training facility in Trivandrum—the project is worth INR10 billion and will have a capacity of 10,000 seats. The completion of the facility is expected in 2014 or 2015.[8]
On 25 June 2002, India and the European Union agreed to bilateral cooperation in the field of science and technology. A joint EU-India group of scholars was formed on 23 November 2001 to further promote joint research and development. India holds observer status at CERN, while a joint India-EU Software Education and Development Center will be located in Bangalore.[9]
Major IT Hubs[edit]RankDescription1BangalorePopularly known as the Silicon Valley of India and IT Capital of India. Bangalore is considered to be a global information technology hub and largest software exports from India. The top Indian IT service providers like Infosys and Wipro are headquartered in Bangalore, It is also country headquarters to many top firms like Intel, Texas Instruments, Bosch, Yahoo, SAP labs, Continental and many more, Bangalore alone consists of more than 35 percentage of all the IT companies present in India and contains close to 5000 companies making it the largest IT contributor in India.2ChennaiChennai is the second largest exporter of IT and ITES of India. Some of the major companies having operation centres at Chennai are Accenture,Cognizant, TCS, Syntel, Wipro, Infosys, Verizon, L&T, HCL, Amazon.com, eBay, Paypal, Polaris, Patni, Capgemini and many major global providers. The city has a world class IT infrastructures with dedicated expressway nicknamed as IT expressway, and many other IT parks promoted by both government and private entities. The city's strong industrial base also favors setting up of many major R&D centers in its vicinity.3HyderabadHyderabad is the third major IT hub in India. It has become the first destination for the Microsoft development centre in India and largest software development centre outside of their headquarters in Redmond, Washington.Facebook is also based here. It is also known as Cyber city which consists of many Multinational corporation companies such as Google, Cognizant, Tata Consultancy Service4DelhiThe National Capital Region comprising Delhi, Gurgaon and Noida are clusters of software development.5MumbaiThe Financial capital of India, but many IT companies like TCS[disambiguation needed] which is India's first and largest have headquarters in Mumbai along with Reliance, Patni, Syntel, LnT Infotech, Melstar Information Technologies, Mastek and i-Flex.6PuneMajor Indian and International Firms present in Pune. It is also known as Tech city which consists of many Multinational corporation companies such as Capgemini, Syntel, Infosys etc., and is one of the IT hub of India. Pune is also C-DAC headquarters.7KolkataThe city is a major back-end operational hub for IBM, Deloitte.8CoimbatoreProudly called as "Manchester of South India", Coimbatore is one of the fastest emerging IT hub and developing cities of India. Coimbatore has major IT companies like Cognizant, Wipro, Robert Bosch, HCL Technologies, DELL, Exterro, Tata Consultancy Services. It also hosts the training center of Cognizant. There are many other IT majors which have planned to start the operations soon.9BhubaneswarThe capital city of Odisha, an emerging IT and education hub, is one of India's fastest developing cities.10ThiruvananthapuramThe capital of Kerala, now houses all major IT companies including Oracle, TCS, Infosys, and contributes in IT export of India.11KochiThe commercial capital of Kerala, now houses all major IT companies including TCS, Cognizant, and contributes in IT export of India.Employment[edit]This sector has also led to massive employment generation. The industry continues to be a net employment generator - expected to add 230,000 jobs in FY2012, thus providing direct employment to about 2.8 million, and indirectly employing 8.9 million people.[1] Generally dominant player in the global outsourcing sector. However, the sector continues to face challenges of competitiveness in the globalized and modern world, particularly from countries like China and Philippines.
India's growing stature in the Information Age enabled it to form close ties with both the United States of America and the European Union. However, the recent global financial crises has deeply impacted the Indian IT companies as well as global companies. As a result hiring has dropped sharply, and employees are looking at different sectors like the financial service, telecommunications, and manufacturing industries, which have been growing phenomenally over the last few years.[10] India's IT Services industry was born inMumbai in 1967 with the establishment of Tata Group in partnership with Burroughs.[11] The first software export zone SEEPZ was set up here way back in 1973, the old avatar of the modern day IT park. More than 80 percent of the country's software exports happened out of SEEPZ, Mumbai in 1980s.[12]
Future Outlook[13][edit]The Indian IT market currently focuses on providing low cost solution in the services business of global IT. Presence of Indian companies in the product development business of global IT is very meagre, however, this number is slowly on the raise. US giants that outsource work to India, do not allocate the high end SDLC (Software Development Life Cycle) processes like requirement analysis, high level design and architectural design, although some Indian IT players have enough competency to take up and successfully complete these high level software jobs. The other prominent trend is, IT jobs, that were earlier confined to Bangalore, are slowly starting to experience a geographical diffuse into other cities like Chennai, Hyderabad and Pune. The growth is not fast paced, this, can be largely attributed to the lethargic attitude of the government in providing proper telecommunication infrastructure. The penetration levels are higher for mobile, but, the speed at which the backbone infrastructure works (network speed) and the coverage it offers are far below what other countries of the world have currently in offer.
The Indian Advantage[edit]The above listed views might possibly work against India’s’ dream to become the biggest contributor to world IT business, but, if there is one factor that is particular only to India, and, the one that can nullify all negative factors lined up against it, would be, the volume of young, English speaking talent pool that India has got to offer. This number far exceeds, any other country can generate in the coming years. It cannot be denied that China is gearing up to reduce the English fluency gap, but, at the same time, doing it with ease like India, is a topic of discussion.
From Services to Product Orientation[edit]The migration of Indian IT companies to mainstream product development is not happening any time in the near future, this, primarily can be attributed to the fact that was discussed in earlier section, which is, lack of innovation culture amongst the top hierarchy of the firm, and, less availability of skilled management graduates in the country. However, what might possibly happen is, global multinationals that are currently outsourcing services and back office jobs to India, might outsource more of higher level jobs in SDLC (Software Development Life Cycle) like requirement analysis and architecture design. The other opportunity is, Indian subsidiaries of global multinationals might take up significant chunk of the product development than what they are currently doing, this, however, is not happening currently because, the global IT firms are still not comfortable in working out a way to extract high end work from Indian companies.
Research and Development- The new drivers[edit]The research in the industry was earlier concentrated towards programming technologies like Java, in the recent times, the research focus changed towards technologies like mobile computing, cloud computing and software as a service. This shift is attributed to preference of clients towards the ubiquitous computing over standalone computing and the growing demand for low cost computing solutions.
See also[edit]
- Electronics City, Bangalore
- Mahindra World City, Chennai
- Technopark, Trivandrum
- Technocity, Thiruvananthapuram
- Supercomputing in India
- HITEC City
- List of IT companies in India
- PARAM
- ^ a b c d "Indian IT-BPO Industry". NASSCOM. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
- ^ Kamdar (2006)
- ^ Canton, Naomi. "How the 'Silicon Valley of India' is bridging the digital divide". CNN. Retrieved December 6, 2012.
- ^ RAI, SARITHA. "Is the Next Silicon Valley Taking Root in Bangalore?". New York Times. Retrieved March 20, 2006.
- ^ "Gartner Says Top six Indian IT Services Providers Grew 23.8 Percent In 2011". Gartner.com. 2012-05-07. Retrieved 2013-09-28.
- ^ "Online Journal of Space Communication". Spacejournal.ohio.edu. Retrieved2013-09-28.
- ^ "80% of IT exports in Kerla".
- ^ "TCS to build a 10,000 seat learning campus in Kerala" (Press release). TATA Consultancy Services. 14 September 2010. Retrieved 10 November 2013.
- ^ Inc, lbp (2013). India Telecom Laws and Regulations Handbook. Int'l Business Publication. p. 300. ISBN 1433081903.
- ^ "Economic Times (2010), Are IT jobs losing sparkle?". Economictimes.indiatimes.com. 27 August 2010. Retrieved 30 August 2010.
- ^ "Special Economic Zones: Profits At Any Cost". Doccentre.net. Retrieved 22 July 2010.
- ^ "Top 50 Emerging Global Outsourcing Cities". www.itida.gov.eg. Retrieved 22 July2010.
- ^ MohanRaj, Prasanna; Niranjan and Snighdha (May 2014). "Indian I.T Industry - A Model based approach to a shift towards a Prominent Presence in the Global Market". Research Journal of Economics and Business studies 3 (7).
Further reading[edit]
- Eijaj, Steve, E-Commerce. (2006: from Computers and Information Systems), Encyclopædia Britannica 2008.
- Chand, Vikram K. (2006), Reinventing public service delivery in India: Selected Case Studies, Sage Publications, ISBN 0-7619-3489-8.
- Desai, Ashok V. (2006), "Information and other Technology Development", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2) edited by Stanley Wolpert, pp. 269–273, Thomson Gale, ISBN 0-684-31351-0.
- Kamdar, Mira (2006), "Indo -U.S. Relations, Cultural Exchanges in", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2) edited by Stanley Wolpert, pp. 236–239, Thomson Gale, ISBN 0-684-31351-0.
- Kapur, Devesh (2006), "Diaspora" in Encyclopedia of India (vol. 1) edited by Stanley Wolpert, pp. 328–331, Thomson Gale, ISBN 0-684-31350-2.
- Ketkar, Prafulla (2006), "European Union, Relations with (Science and technology)", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2) edited by Stanley Wolpert, pp. 48–51, Thomson Gale, ISBN 0-684-31351-0.
- Nanda, B. R. (2006), "Nehru, Jawaharlal", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 3) edited by Stanley Wolpert, pp. 222–227, Thomson Gale, ISBN 0-684-31352-9.
- Rothermund, Dietmar (2006), "Andhra Pradesh", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 1) edited by Stanley Wolpert, pp. 43–44, Thomson Gale, ISBN 0-684-31350-2.
- Saraswati, Jyoti. Dot.compradors: Power and Policy in the Development of the Indian Software Industry. London: Pluto, 2012. ISBN 9780745332659.
- Sharma, Jagdish (2006), "Diaspora: History of and Global Distribution", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 1) edited by Stanley Wolpert, pp. 331–336, Thomson Gale, ISBN 0-684-31350-2.
- Sharma, Shalendra D. (2006), "Globalization", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2) edited by Stanley Wolpert, pp. 146–149, Thomson Gale, ISBN 0-684-31351-0
- Vrat, Prem (2006), "Indian Institutes of Technology", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2) edited by Stanley Wolpert, pp. 229–231, Thomson Gale, ISBN 0-684-31351-0.
- Wolcott, P. & Goodman, S. E. (2003), Global Diffusion of the Internet – I India: Is the Elephant Learning to Dance?, Communications of the Association for Information Systems, 11: 560-646.
External links[edit][show]
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